Languages and Related Resources

The files will likely be an unorganized mess for some time, but there's lots in here. Enjoy!

Languages Overview

According the to the data over at Glottolog, on the so-called "American" continent, there are:

• 83 language families
• 508 language sub-families
• 95 language isolates
• 1194 languages in total that are known

Excluded are sign languages, mixed languages, artificial languages, and other languages which were not originally indigenous to this continent.

There may have been more languages present on the continent which became extinct before anyone was able to collect proper attestation (evidence of their existence).

Given the timeline of the presence of hominids on the continent and the nature of how modern humans interbred with other hominids, it's quite possible that many of the language families and language isolates that cannot be traced back to other language families may have come from language families which predated modern humans emergence from Africa 70,000 years ago(it is more complicated than that).

• Where does language come from?
• How to speak Neanderthal: Perhaps we do already
• Neanderthals, Denisovans May Have Had Their Own Language, Suggest Scientists
• Neanderthals shared speech and language with modern humans, study suggests
• Dediu, Dan, Stephen C. Levinson. On the antiquity of language: the reinterpretation of Neandertal linguistic capacities and its consequences. Front. Psychol., 05 July 2013. - The article the started it all.
• Hillert, Dieter G. On the Evolving Biology of Language. Front Psychol. 2015; 6: 1796.
• Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans
• Introduction to the Cuauhtlatoatzin Indigenous Peoples' History Repository
• Garcia, M., Theunissen, F., Sèbe, F., Clavel, J., Ravignani, A., Marin-Cudraz, T., ... & Mathevon, N. (2020). Evolution of communication signals and information during species radiation. Nature communications, 11(1), 1-15. — Shows how communication changes and is adapted both within and across species.

Proposed classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas

• Classification schemes for indigenous languages of the Americas -- Pretty cool to see the most recent proposal, but there's definitely room for improvement.

Language Families

All the names link to Glottolog, which display a language tree, map, and references for academic research.

Langauge Family		Geographic Area	Wikipedia Link	Sub-families	Child Languages
Algic		North America	Wikipedia	18	45
Araucanian		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Arawakan		North + South America	Wikipedia	46	78
Arawan		South America	Wikipedia	2	6
Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (Na-Dene)		North America	Wikipedia	16	45
Aymaran		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Barbacoan		South America	Wikipedia	3	6
Boran		South America		0	2
Bororoan		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Caddoan		North America	Wikipedia	3	5
Cahuapanan		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Cariban		South America	Wikipedia	22	42
Chapacuran		South America	Wikipedia	9	12
Charruan		South America	Wikipedia	0	3
Chibchan		North + South America	Wikipedia	18	27
Chicham		South America		1	4
Chimakuan		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Chinookan		North America	Wikipedia	2	4
Chocoan		South America	Wikipedia	6	9
Chonan		South America	Wikipedia	2	4
Chumashan		North America	Wikipedia	2	6
Cochimi-Yuman		North America	Wikipedia	6	11
Coosan		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Eskimo-Aleut		North America	Wikipedia	5	12
Guahiboan		South America	Wikipedia	2	5
Guaicuruan		South America	Wikipedia	3	5
Haida		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Harakmbut		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Hibito-Cholon		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Huarpean		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Huavean		North America	Wikipedia	2	4
Huitotoan		South America	Wikipedia	4	7
Iroquoian		North America	Wikipedia	3	11
Jicaquean (Tol/Jicaque)		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Jodi-Saliban		South America	Wikipedia	2	4
Kakua-Nukak		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Kalapuyan		North America	Wikipedia	0	3
Kamakanan		South America	Wikipedia	1	4
Kariri		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Katukinan		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Kawesqar		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Keresan		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Kiowa-Tanoan		North America	Wikipedia	4	8
Lencan		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Lengua-Mascoy		South America	Wikipedia	1	5
Maiduan (Maidu/Nisenan)		North America	Wikipedia	0	4
Matacoan		South America	Wikipedia	4	7
Mayan		North + South America	Wikipedia	24	33
Misumalpan		North America	Wikipedia	3	5
Miwok-Costanoan (Utian)		North America	Wikipedia	6	11
Mixe-Zoque		North America	Wikipedia	9	19
Muskogean		North America	Wikipedia	2	7
Nadahup		South America	Wikipedia	2	4
Nambiquaran		South America	Wikipedia	3	6
Nuclear-Macro-Je		South America	Wikipedia	15	30
Otomanguean		North + South America	Wikipedia	70	180
Palaihnihan		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Pano-Tacanan		South America	Wikipedia	21	45
Peba-Yagua		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Pomoan		North America	Wikipedia	4	7
Puri-Coroado		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Quechuan		South America	Wikipedia	15	45
Sahaptian		North America	Wikipedia	3	5
Salishan		North America	Wikipedia	9	25
Shastan (Shasta/Konomihu)		North America	Wikipedia	0	3
Siouan		North America	Wikipedia	11	18
Tarascan (Purepecha)		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Tequistlatecan (Chontal)		North America	Wikipedia	0	3
Ticuna-Yuri		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Totonacan		North America	Wikipedia	6	12
Tsimshian		North America	Wikipedia	1	3
Tucanoan		South America	Wikipedia	20	26
Tupian		South America	Wikipedia	40	71
Uru-Chipaya		South America	Wikipedia	0	2
Uto-Aztecan		North America	Wikipedia	36	69
Wakashan		North America	Wikipedia	4	6
Wintuan (Nomlaki/Wintu/Patwin)		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Xincan		North America	Wikipedia	2	5
Yanomamic		South America	Wikipedia	3	5
Yokutsan		North America	Wikipedia	2	4
Yuki-Wappo		North America	Wikipedia	0	2
Zamucoan		South America	Wikipedia	1	3
Zaparoan		South America	Wikipedia	4	6

Language Isolates

So far it is unkkown if the following languages are related to any of the above language families. They may be, but not many people are studying them. All the names link to Glottolog, which display a language tree, map, and references for academic research.

Langauge Name	Geographic Area	Wikipedia Link
Adai	North America	Wikipedia
Aewa	South America	Wikipedia
Aikanã	South America	Wikipedia
Alsea-Yaquina	North America	Wikipedia
Andaqui	South America	Wikipedia
Andoque	South America	Wikipedia
Arutani	South America	Wikipedia
Atacame	South America	Wikipedia
Atakapa	North America	Wikipedia
Beothuk	North America	Wikipedia
Betoi-Jirara	South America	Wikipedia
Camsá	South America	Wikipedia
Candoshi-Shapra	South America	Wikipedia
Canichana	South America	Wikipedia
Cayubaba	South America	Wikipedia
Cayuse	North America	Wikipedia
Chimariko	North America	Wikipedia
Chiquitano	South America	Wikipedia
Chitimacha	North America	Wikipedia
Chono	South America	Wikipedia
Coahuilteco	North America	Wikipedia
Cofán	South America	Wikipedia
Comecrudan	North America	Wikipedia
Cotoname	North America	Wikipedia
Cuitlatec	North America	Wikipedia
Culli	South America	Wikipedia
Esselen	North America	Wikipedia
Fulniô	South America	Wikipedia
Guachi	South America	Wikipedia
Guaicurian	North America	Wikipedia
Guamo	South America	Wikipedia
Guató	South America	Wikipedia
Irántxe-Münkü	South America	Wikipedia
Itonama	South America	Wikipedia
Jirajaran	South America	Wikipedia
Kanoê	South America	Wikipedia
Karankawa	North America	Wikipedia
Karok	North America	Wikipedia
Klamath-Modoc	North America	Wikipedia
Kunza	South America	Wikipedia
Kutenai	North America	Wikipedia
Kwaza	South America	Wikipedia
Leco	South America	Wikipedia
Lule	South America	Wikipedia
Máku	South America	Wikipedia
Maratino	North America	Wikipedia
Matanawí	South America	Wikipedia
Mato Grosso Arára	South America	Wikipedia
Mochica	South America	Wikipedia
Molale	North America	Wikipedia
Mosetén-Chimané	South America	Wikipedia
Movima	South America	Wikipedia
Muniche	South America	Wikipedia
Mure	South America
Natchez	North America	Wikipedia
Omurano	South America	Wikipedia
Oti	South America
Otomaco-Taparita	South America	Wikipedia
Páez	South America	Wikipedia
Pankararú	South America	Wikipedia
Payagua	South America	Wikipedia
Pirahã	South America	Wikipedia
Puelche	South America	Wikipedia
Puinave	South America	Wikipedia
Pumé	South America	Wikipedia
Puquina	South America	Wikipedia
Ramanos	South America	Wikipedia
Salinan	North America	Wikipedia
Sapé	South America	Wikipedia
Sechuran	South America	Wikipedia
Seri	North America	Wikipedia
Siuslaw	North America	Wikipedia
Takelma	North America	Wikipedia
Tallán	South America	Wikipedia
Taruma	South America	Wikipedia
Taushiro	South America	Wikipedia
Timote-Cuica	South America	Wikipedia
Timucua	North America	Wikipedia
Tinigua	South America	Wikipedia
Tonkawa	North America	Wikipedia
Trumai	South America	Wikipedia
Tunica	North America	Wikipedia
Tuxá	South America	Wikipedia
Urarina	South America	Wikipedia
Vilela	South America	Wikipedia
Waorani	South America	Wikipedia
Warao	South America	Wikipedia
Washo	North America	Wikipedia
Xukurú	South America	Wikipedia
Yámana	South America	Wikipedia
Yana	North America	Wikipedia
Yuchi	North America	Wikipedia
Yuracaré	South America	Wikipedia
Yurumanguí	South America	Wikipedia
Zuni	North America	Wikipedia

Hypothesized Macrofamilies

These could change at the drop of a hat.

• Aztec–Tanoan languages - Uto-Aztecan (Hopi, Tübatulabal, Numic, Serran, Cupan, Tarahumaran, Cahitan, Opata, Corachol, Piman, Nahuan), Kiowa–Tanoan (Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, Kiowa), Zuni(?).
• Hokan languages - Karuk, Shasta-Palaihnihan, Ch’imáriko, Yana, Washo, Esselen, Salinan, Pomoan, Yuman, Seri, Coahuilteco, Comecrudan, Tequistlatecan, Jicaquean (Tolan), Lencan(?), Misumalpan(?) [last two could actually just be part of a sprachbund]
• Macro-Chibchan languages - Chibchan, Misulmalpan, Lencan
• Yok-Utian - Miwok-Costanoan (Utian), Yokutsan
• Penutian languages - This has changed a lot over the years.
  • Original 1913 Proposal (Core Penutian) only includes: Maiduan, Miwok-Costanoan (Utian), Wintuan, Yokutsan
  • Expanded in 1916 to add Oregon Penutian: Coosan, Siuslaw, Takelma
  • In 1921, the Chinookan and Tsimshian families were added. Kalapuyan and Alsea-Yaquina were added to Oregon Penutian.
  • In 1929, Sapir had added two more branches:
    • Plateau Penutian: Klamath, Cayuse (not currently in the group), Molala, Sahaptian
    • Mexican Penitian: Mixe-Zoque, Huave
  • Current hypothesis:
    • Tsimshian
    • Chinook
    • Coast Oregon Penutian: Alsea, Siuslaw, Coos
    • Inland Penutian:
      • Yok-Utian: Miwok-Costanoan (Utian), Yokutsan
      • Maidu
      • Plateau Penutian: Sahaptian, Molala, Klamath
    • Specialists still include: Wintuan, Takelma, and Kalapuyan.
• Plateau Penutian - Klamath, Molala, and Sahaptian. [Only subgrouping of Penutian that has any proof behind it so far.]
• Totozoquean languages - Totonac–Tepehua, Mixe–Zoque, Chitimacha
• Macro-Siouan languages - Siouan, Yuchi, Caddoan, Iroquoian
• Mosan languages - Chimakuan, Salishan, Wakashan [Considered a language area, as no successful reconstructions have occurred.]
• Algonquian–Wakashan languages (Almosan) - Algic family, Kutenai, & Mosan Family. Some include Nivkh and even Chukotko-Kamchatkan
• Uralo-Siberian - Uralic, Yukaghir, Eskimo–Aleut, possibly Nivkh and formerly Chukotko-Kamchatkan
• Dené–Yeniseian languages - Athabaskan. Tlingit, Eyak, Yeniseian, Haida
• Dené–Caucasian languages - Dené-Yeniseian (incl. Haida), North Caucasian, Sino-Tibetan, Burushaski, Vasconic, Tyrsenian (sometimes included), Sumerian (sometimes included), Almosan (rarely included) [Bascially spans the entire world.]

Writing Systems

• Alphabets/Syllabaries/Abugidas:
  • Alphabet:
    • International Phonetic Alphabet chart - Official PDF
    • International Phonetic Alphabet chart
    • IPA Chart with multiple sound samples
    • Interactive IPA Chart
    • IPA Chart With Sounds
    • Wikipedia — IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio
    • Wipedia — IPA vowel chart with audio
    • Americanist phonetic notation
    • Osage script
    • Osage
    • For the Past 20 Years, a Santa Ana Man Has Kept the Language of the Aztecs Alive & Ancient Tongue Linked to Aztec Past — David Vasquez, a Nawatl teacher, came up with a new alphabet.
  • Syllabary:
    • Cherokee syllabary
    • Yugtun cursive syllabary & Yugtun script
    • Vai Syllabary — African, likely influenced by the Cherokee syllabary
    • Zapotec
    • Maya
    • A Maya Syllabary
    • Epi-Olmec
    • Teotihuacan
    • Mixtec
    • Aztec
    • Aztec Writing: How does it really work?
  • Abugida:
    • Canadian Aboriginal syllabics
    • Ojibwe syllabics
    • Inuktitut syllabics
    • Blackfoot syllabics
    • Carrier syllabics
    • Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics
    • Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Extended
    • Un nuevo sistema para la escritura náhuatl — This is by some random dude who doesn't seem to have any connection to the culture, but linguistically it works well.
    • Ditema tsa Dinoko — African. Used for writing Souther Bantu Languages. Has many characteristics of the Unified Canadian Syllabics above.
  • Other:
    • Quipu & Khipu Database Project
    • komqwejwi'kasikl — Miꞌkmaq hieroglyphic writing
    • komqwejwi'kasikl examples & more komqwejwi'kasikl
• History and Evolution of Writing
  • Ćwiek, A., Fuchs, S., Draxler, C., Asu, E. L., Dediu, D., Hiovain, K., ... & Winter, B. (2022). The bouba/kiki effect is robust across cultures and writing systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 377(1841), 20200390.
  • Miton, H., & Morin, O. (2021). Graphic complexity in writing systems. Cognition, 214, 104771.
  • Höflmayer, F., Misgav, H., Webster, L., & Streit, K. (2021). Early alphabetic writing in the ancient Near East: the ‘missing link’from Tel Lachish. Antiquity, 1-15.
  • Kelly, P., Winters, J., Miton, H., & Morin, O. (2021). The predictable evolution of letter shapes: An emergent script of West Africa recapitulates historical change in writing systems. Current Anthropology, 62(6), 000-000.
  • [https://doi.org/10.1086/717779]

Software Links

Linguistics Data Collection & Analysis

• UCLA Department of Linguistics Software and Resources
• Research Software & Tools — includes links to further lists of software.
• SIL Linguistics Software List
• The Linguist List Software List
• Software in Speech, Hearing and Phonetic Sciences — Web Applications
• Kura
• Platform for Annotated Corpora in XML
• Software for Linguistics
• Natural Language Toolkit(Python)
• Aika is an artificial neural network designed specifically for the processing of natural language texts.
• Aikuma Project
  • LIG-Aikuma is a recording application for language documentation.
  • Zahwa is an app for sharing know-how using pictures and talk.
  • Stories in the original languages...
  • Aikuma Web Component Project
  • Celebrate International Year of Indigenous Languages
• ELAN is a professional tool for the creation of complex annotations on video and audio resources.
• EXMARaLDA is a system for working with oral corpora on a computer. It consists of a transcription and annotation tool (Partitur-Editor), a tool for managing corpora (Corpus-Manager) and a query and analysis tool (EXAKT).
• The Snack Sound Toolkit
• TranscriberAG: a tool for segmenting, labeling and transcribing speech
• RBRUL
• The EAG project
• Praat: Doing Phonetics By Computer
  • Using Praat for Linguistic Research
• KTH Speech, Music and Hearing Group Software List
• NVIDIA Accelerates Real Time Speech to Text Transcription 3500x with Kaldi
• Mixed Precision Training for NLP and Speech Recognition with OpenSeq2Seq
• Recursive Neural Networks with PyTorch
• Deep Speech: Accurate Speech Recognition with GPU-Accelerated Deep Learning
• CUDA Spotlight: GPU-Accelerated Speech Recognition
• Introduction to Neural Machine Translation with GPUs (part 1)
• Introduction to Neural Machine Translation with GPUs (Part 2)
• Introduction to Neural Machine Translation with GPUs (part 3)
• Understanding Natural Language with Deep Neural Networks Using Torch

Keyboards

• Keyman — On screen keyboard supporting over 1000 languages without extending it. Windows, Mac OS, iOS, Android, Linux, and web versions available. Can be extended to support any language. See Keyman Developer for more information on extending the keyboard. Would likely need many modifications to support spell checking, autocorrections, speech recognition, and text to speech; would also need a service developed to support such features.
• International Phonetic Alphabet fonts and keyboards
• Canadian Aboriginal Keyboard — Android keyboard.
• FirstVoices Keyboards — iOS keyboard for Canadian First Nations
• Type IPA phonetic symbols — web based keybord, but not able to be integrated into a web app.
• Developing customs keyboards (but why when you can use Keyman):
  • iOS:
    • Custom Keyboards
    • Custom Keyboard
    • Creating a Custom Keyboard In IOS…
  • Android:
    • Create an input method
    • Image keyboard support
    • Let’s build a custom keyboard for Android
    • Spell checker framework — This is one thing Keyman can't do, but this could also be combined with Keyman.

Conversion Tools

• Syllabics.net

Fonts

• ScriptSource
• Google Noto Fonts
• Unlocking the Mayan Hieroglyphic Script with Unicode
• Final proposal to encode the Osage script in the UCS

Links Elsewhere

• Alberta Language Technology Lab: 21st Century Tools for Indigenous Languages
• First Voices - As of 16 Oct. 2018, this site has basic vocabulary and resources for 49 First Nation languages (Canada).
• ONYOTA’A:KÁ:
• North American Languages - Titus Didactica
• Central American Languages - Titus Didactica
• South American Languages - Titus Didactica
• Linguistic Map of Canada
• Ameriketako Estatu Batuak
• DIVERSIDAD LINGÜÍSTICA LATINOAMÉRICANA
• Foster, Michael K. “The Impact of Sapir's Six-Phylum Linguistic Scheme on Speculation about North American Indian Culture History: A Bibliographic Essay.” Anthropological Linguistics, vol. 30, no. 1, 1988, pp. 37–67. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/30028923.
• Sutter, Faith. A glimpse of lost language. The Harvard Gazette. 24 Aug. 2010
• Quilter, Jeffrey, et al. Traces of a Lost Language and Number System Discovered on the North Coast of Peru. American Anthropologist. Vol. 112, No. 3. Sep. 2010
• The Bipartite Stem Belt: Disentangling Areal and Genetic Correspondences
• Bibliography of comparative Penutian prepared by Victor Golla for the Comparative Penutian Workshop, University of Oregon, 1994.
• Language - The Klamath Tribes
• Aschmann, Herman P. Totonaco Phonemes. International Journal of American Linguistics. Vol. 12, No. 1 (Jan., 1946), pp. 34-43
• Proto Utian Grammar and Dictionary: With Notes on Yokuts
• Welcome to the Ioway, Otoe-Missouria Language Website
• Ioway Cultural Institute : Language
• official website of the Otoe-Missouria tribe’s Language Department
• Language of the Aztecs alive and well in Los Angeles
• French Nahuatl Dictionary
• Nahuatl Dictionary
• Diccionario náhuatl - español en línea en AULEX
• Nawatl Scholar
• Rig Veda Americanus. Sacred songs of the ancient Mexicans, with a gloss in Nahuatl.
• Endangered Language Alliance's Meso-America Languages Project
• FAMSImMesoamerican Language Texts Digitization Project
• Languages and cultures of present-day Mexico: traditional names
• Nahua documents
• Ñudzavui documents