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% Encoding: UTF-8
@article{grange_temp_2019,
abstract = { Diesel-powered road vehicles are important sources
for nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions and the European
passenger fleet is highly dieselised, which has
resulted in many European roadside environments
being non-compliant with legal air quality standards
for nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Based on vehicle
emission remote sensing data for 300 000 light-duty
vehicles across the United Kingdom, light-duty
diesel NOx emissions were found to be highly
dependent on ambient temperature with low
temperatures resulting in higher NOx emissions,
i.e., a "low temperature NOx emission penalty" was
identified. This feature was not observed for
gasoline-powered vehicles. Older Euro 3 to 5 diesel
vehicles emitted NOx similarly, but vehicles
compliant with the latest Euro 6 emission standard,
emitted less NOx than older vehicles and
demonstrated less of an ambient temperature
dependence. This ambient temperature dependence is
overlooked in current emission inventories, but is
of importance from an air quality perspective. Owing
to Europe's climate, a predicted average of 38 \%
more NOx emissions have burdened Europe when
compared to temperatures encountered in laboratory
test cycles. However, owing to the progressive
elimination of vehicles demonstrating the most
severe low temperature NOx penalty, light-duty
diesel NOx emissions are likely to decrease more
rapidly throughout Europe than currently thought. },
author = {Grange, Stuart Kenneth and Farren, Naomi J and
Vaughan, Adam R and Rose, Rebecca A and Carslaw,
David},
doi = {10.1021/acs.est.9b01024},
eprint = { https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b01024 },
journal = {Environmental Science \& Technology},
number = 53,
pages = {6587--6596},
title = {Strong temperature dependence for light-duty diesel
vehicle NO$_x$ emissions},
url = { https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b01024 },
year = 2019
}
@article{Carslaw2019,
abstract = {The direct emission of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from
road vehicle exhaust has been an important
contributor to near-road ambient concentrations of
NO2 in many European cities. Diesel vehicles and
their use of emission control technologies such as
Diesel Oxidation Catalysts, have dominated the
emission of NO2 from road vehicles. In this work, we
summarise findings from recent vehicle emission
remote sensing measurements in the UK that provide
detailed information on the emissions of NO2 and
total NOx(NO2+NO). We show that while new
diesel cars and light commercial vehicles are
associated with high (typically 30{\%}) proportions
of NO2/NOx, the amount of absolute NOx and NO2
emitted by most Euro 6 vehicles has decreased
substantially and that absolute emissions of NO2
have been reducing since around 2007. Additionally,
we find that the amount of NO2 decreases as the
vehicle mileage increases. Taken together, these
factors have led to substantial reductions in
emissions of NO2 in recent years from light duty
diesel vehicles, which has contributed to reduced
roadside NO2 concentrations. There is a need however
for commonly used emission factor models to account
for these changes in emissions of NO2.},
author = {Carslaw, David C. and Farren, Naomi J. and Vaughan,
Adam R. and Drysdale, William S. and Young, Stuart
and Lee, James D.},
doi = {10.1016/J.AEAOA.2018.100002},
issn = {2590-1621},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment: X},
number = 2,
pages = 100002,
publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
title = {{The diminishing importance of nitrogen dioxide
emissions from road vehicle exhaust}},
url =
{https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590162118300029},
volume = 1,
year = 2018
}
@Article{Casquero-Vera2019,
author = {Casquero-Vera, J.A. and Lyamani, H. and Titos, G. and Borr{\'{a}}s, E. and Olmo, F.J. and Alados-Arboledas, L.},
title = {{Impact of primary \notwo emissions at different urban sites exceeding the European \notwo standard limit}},
journal = {Science of The Total Environment},
year = {2019},
volume = {646},
pages = {1117--1125},
issn = {0048-9697},
abstract = {A large part of the European population is still exposed to ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels exceeding the European Union (EU) air quality standards, being a key challenge to reduce NO2 concentrations across many European urban areas, particularly close to roads. In this work, a trend analysis of pollutants involved in NO2 processes was done for the period 2003–2014 in traffic sites from three Spanish cities (Barcelona, Madrid and Granada) that still exceed the European NO2 air quality standard limits. We also estimated the contributions of primary NO2 emissions and photo-chemically formed NO2 to the observed ambient NO2 concentrations in order to explore their possible role in the observed NO2 concentration trends. The NOx and NO concentrations at these traffic sites showed significant decreasing trends during the period 2003–2014, especially at Barcelona (BARTR) and Madrid (MADTR) traffic stations. The NO2 concentrations showed statistically significant downward trends at BARTR and MADTR and remained unchanged at Granada traffic station (GRATR) during the study period. Despite the significant decrease in NO2 concentrations in BCNTR and MADTR during the analysed period, the NO2 concentrations observed over these sites still above the annual NO2 standard limit of 40 $\mu$g m−3 and, therefore, more efficient measures are still needed. Primary NO2 emissions significantly influence NO2 concentrations at the three analysed sites. However, as no drastic changes are expected in the after-exhaust treatment technology that can reduce primary NO2 emissions to zero in the near future, only a substantial reduction in NOx emissions will help to comply with the NO2 European air quality standards. Reduction of 78{\%}, 56{\%} and 16{\%} on NOx emissions in Barcelona, Madrid and Granada were estimated to be necessary to comply with the NO2 annual limit of 40 $\mu$g m−3.},
doi = {10.1016/J.SCITOTENV.2018.07.360},
file = {:C$backslash$:/Users/David/AppData/Local/Mendeley Ltd./Mendeley Desktop/Downloaded/Casquero-Vera et al. - 2019 - Impact of primary NO2 emissions at different urban sites exceeding the European NO2 standard limit.pdf},
publisher = {Elsevier},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718328560},
}
@article{ODriscoll2018,
Author = {O'Driscoll, Rosalind and Stettler, Marc E. J. and Molden, Nick and
Oxley, Tim and ApSimon, Helen M.},
Title = {{Real world \cotwo and \nox emissions from 149 Euro 5 and 6 diesel, gasoline
and hybrid passenger cars}},
Journal = {{Science of the Total Environment}},
Year = {{2018}},
Volume = {{621}},
Pages = {{282-290}},
Month = {{APR 15}},
Abstract = {{In this study CO2 and NOx emissions from 149 Euro 5 and 6 diesel,
gasoline and hybrid passenger cars were compared using a Portable
Emissions Measurement System (PEMS). The models sampled accounted for
56\% of all passenger cars sold in Europe in 2016. We found gasoline
vehicles had CO2 emissions 13-66\% higher than diesel. During urban
driving, the average CO2 emission factor was 210.5 (sd. 47) g km(-1) for
gasoline and 170.2 (sd. 34) g km(-1) for diesel. Half the gasoline
vehicles tested were Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI). Euro 6 GDI engines
< 1.4l delivered similar to 17\% CO2 reduction compared to Port Fuel
Injection (PFI). Gasoline vehicles delivered an 8696\% reduction in NOx
emissions compared to diesel cars. The average urban NOx emission from
Euro 6 diesel vehicles 0.44 (sd. 0.44) g km(-1) was 11 times higher than
for gasoline 0.04 (sd. 0.04) g km(-1). We also analysed two
gasoline-electric hybrids which out-performed both gasoline and diesel
for NOx and CO2. We conclude action is required to mitigate the public
health risk created by excessive NOx emissions from modern diesel
vehicles. Replacing diesel with gasoline would incur a substantial CO2
penalty, however greater uptake of hybrid vehicles would likely reduce
both CO2 and NOx emissions. Discrimination of vehicles on the basis of
Euro standard is arbitrary and incentives should promote vehicles with
the lowest real-world emissions of both NOx and CO2. (C) 2017 Elsevier
B.V. All rights reserved.}},
DOI = {{10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.271}},
ISSN = {{0048-9697}},
EISSN = {{1879-1026}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000424196800030}},
}
@Article{Degraeuwe2017,
author = {Degraeuwe, Bart and Thunis, Philippe and Clappier, Alain and Weiss, Martin and Lefebvre, Wouter and Janssen, Stijn and Vranckx, Stijn},
title = {{Impact of passenger car \nox emissions on urban \notwo pollution --- Scenario analysis for 8 European cities}},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
year = {2017},
issn = {1873-2844},
abstract = {Residents of large European cities are exposed to NO2 concentrations that often exceed the established air quality standards. Diesel cars have been identified as a major contributor to this situation; yet, it remains unclear to which levels the NOXemissions of diesel cars have to decrease to effectively mitigate urban NO2pollution across Europe. Here, we take a continental perspective and model urban NO2pollution in a generic street canyon of 8 major European cities for various NOXemission scenarios. We find that a reduction in the on-road NOXemissions of diesel cars to the Euro 6 level can in general decrease the regional and urban NO2concentrations and thereby the frequency of exceedances of the NO2air quality standard. High NO2fractions in the NOXemissions of diesel cars tend to increase the urban NO2concentrations only in proximity of intense road traffic typically found on artery roads in large cities like Paris and London. In cities with a low share of diesel cars in the vehicle fleet such as Athens or a high contribution from the NO2background to the urban NO2pollution such as Krakow, measures addressing heavy-duty vehicles, and the manufacturing, energy, and mining industry are necessary to decrease urban air pollution. We regard our model results as robust albeit subject to uncertainty resulting from the application of a generic street layout. With small modifications in the input parameters, our model could be used to assess the impact of NOXemissions from road transport on NO2air pollution in any European city.},
doi = {10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.10.040},
isbn = {1352-2310},
keywords = {NO2pollution,NOXemissions of diesel cars,Sustainable transport,Urban air quality modelling},
}
@Article{Chen2016,
author = {Chen, Yuche and Borken-Kleefeld, Jens},
title = {{\nox Emissions from Diesel Passenger Cars Worsen with Age}},
journal = {Environmental Science \& Technology},
year = {2016},
volume = {50},
number = {7},
pages = {3327--3332},
issn = {1520-5851},
abstract = {Commonly, the NOx emissions rates of diesel vehicles have been assumed to remain stable over the vehicle's lifetime. However, there have been hardly any representative long-term emission measurements. Here we present real-driving emissions of diesel cars and light commercial vehicles sampled on-road over 15 years in Zurich/Switzerland. Results suggest deterioration of NOx unit emissions for Euro 2 and Euro 3 diesel technologies, while Euro 1 and Euro 4 technologies seem to be stable. We can exclude a significant influence of high-emitting vehicles. NOx emissions from all cars and light commercial vehicles in European emission inventories increase by 5–10{\%} accounting for the observed deterioration, depending on the country and its share of diesel cars. We suggest monitoring the stability of emission controls particularly for high-mileage light commercial as well as heavy-duty vehicles.},
doi = {10.1021/acs.est.5b04704},
file = {:C$backslash$:/Users/David/Downloads/acs.est.5b04704.pdf},
}
@TechReport{Bernard2018,
author = {Bernard, Yoann and Tietge, Uwe and German, John and Muncrief, Rachel},
title = {{Determination of real-world emissions from passenger vehicles using remote sensing data}},
institution = {International Council on Clean Transportation},
year = {2018},
number = {June},
file = {:C$backslash$:/Users/David/Downloads/TRUE{_}Remote{_}sensing{_}data{_}20180606.pdf},
keywords = {PEMS,emissions standards,emissions testing,real-driving emissions},
pages = {ICCT},
url = {https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/TRUE\_Remote\_sensing\_data\_20180606.pdf},
}
@article{Carslaw2016,
abstract = {Reducing ambient concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) remains a key challenge across many European urban areas, particularly close to roads. This challenge mostly relates to the lack of reduction in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) from diesel road vehicles relative to the reductions expected through increasingly stringent vehicle emissions legislation. However, a key component of near-road concentrations of NO2 derives from directly emitted (primary) NO2 from diesel vehicles. It is well-established that the proportion of NO2 (i.e. the NO2/NOx ratio) in vehicle exhaust has increased over the past decade as a result of vehicle after-treatment technologies that oxidise carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons and generate NO2 to aid the emissions control of diesel particulate. In this work we bring together an analysis of ambient NOx and NO2 measurements with comprehensive vehicle emission remote sensing data obtained in London to better understand recent trends in the NO2/NOx ratio from road vehicles. We show that there is evidence that NO2 concentrations have decreased since around 2010 despite less evidence of a reduction in total NOx. The decrease is shown to be driven by relatively large reductions in the amount of NO2 directly emitted by vehicles; from around 25 vol{\%} in 2010 to 15 vol{\%} in 2014 in inner London, for example. The analysis of NOx and NO2 vehicle emission remote sensing data shows that these reductions have been mostly driven by reduced NO2/NOx emission ratios from heavy duty vehicles and buses rather than light duty vehicles. However, there is also evidence from the analysis of Euro 4 and 5 diesel passenger cars that as vehicles age the NO2/NOx ratio decreases. For example the NO2/NOx ratio decreased from 29.5 ± 2.0{\%} in Euro 5 diesel cars up to one year old to 22.7 ± 2.5{\%} for four-year old vehicles. At some roadside locations the reductions in primary NO2 have had a large effect on reducing both the annual mean and number of hourly exceedances of the European Limit Values of NO2.},
author = {Carslaw, David C. and Murrells, Tim P. and Andersson, Jon and Keenan, Matthew},
doi = {10.1039/C5FD00162E},
file = {::},
issn = {1359-6640},
journal = {Faraday Discuss.},
number = {0},
pages = {439--454},
publisher = {Royal Society of Chemistry},
title = {{Have vehicle emissions of primary \notwo peaked?}},
url = {http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C5FD00162E},
volume = {189},
year = {2016}
}
@Article{Ko2017,
author = {Jinyoung Ko and Dongyoung Jin and Wonwook Jang and Cha-Lee Myung and Sangil Kwon and Simsoo Park},
title = {Comparative investigation of NOx emission characteristics from a Euro 6-compliant diesel passenger car over the NEDC and WLTC at various ambient temperatures},
journal = {Applied Energy},
year = {2017},
volume = {187},
pages = {652 - 662},
issn = {0306-2619},
doi = {10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.11.105},
keywords = {NO emission, Lean NO trap (LNT), New European driving cycle (NEDC), World-harmonized light-duty vehicle test cycle (WLTC), Ambient temperature},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261916317366},
}
@article{Bertoa2018,
Author = {Suarez-Bertoa, Ricardo and Astorga, Covadonga},
Title = {{Impact of cold temperature on Euro 6 passenger car
emissions}},
Journal = {{Environmental Pollution}},
Year = {{2018}},
Volume = {{234}},
Pages = {{318-329}},
Abstract = {{Hydrocarbons, CO, NOx, NH3, N2O, CO2 and
particulate matter emissions affect air quality,
global warming and human health. Transport sector is
an important source of these pollutants and high
pollution episodes are often experienced during the
cold season. However, EU vehicle emissions
regulation at cold ambient temperature only
addresses hydrocarbons and CO vehicular
emissions. For that reason, we have studied the
impact that cold ambient temperatures have on Euro 6
diesel and spark ignition (including: gasoline,
ethanol flex-fuel and hybrid vehicles) vehicle
emissions using the World harmonized Light-duty Test
Cycle (WLTC) at -7 degrees C and 23 degrees
C. Results indicate that when facing the WLTC at 23
degrees C the tested vehicles present emissions
below the values set for type approval of Euro 6
vehicles (still using NEDC), with the exception of
NOx emissions from diesel vehicles that were 2.3-6
times higher than Euro 6 standards. However,
emissions disproportionally increased when vehicles
were tested at cold ambient temperature (-7 degrees
C). High solid particle number (SPN) emissions (>1 x
10(11) \# km(-1)) were measured from gasoline direct
injection (GDI) vehicles and gasoline port fuel
injection vehicles. However, only diesel and GDI SPN
emissions are currently regulated. Results show the
need for a new, technology independent, procedure
that enables the authorities to assess pollutant
emissions from vehicles at cold ambient
temperatures. Harmful pollutant emissions from
spark ignition and diesel vehicles are strongly and
negatively affected by cold ambient
temperatures. Only hydrocarbon, CO emissions are
currently regulated at cold temperature. Therefore,
it is of great importance to revise current EU
winter vehicle emissions regulation. (C) 2017 The
Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.}},
DOI = {{10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.096}},
ISSN = {{0269-7491}},
EISSN = {{1873-6424}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000426225100033}},
}
@Article{Grange2017,
author = {Grange, Stuart K and Lewis, Alastair C and Moller, Sarah J and Carslaw, David C},
title = {{Lower vehicular primary emissions of \notwo in Europe than assumed in policy projections}},
journal = {Nature Geoscience},
year = {2017},
volume = {10},
number = {12},
pages = {914--918},
issn = {1752--0908},
doi = {10.1038/s41561-017-0009-0},
}
@article{grange2016,
title = {Source apportionment advances using polar plots of
bivariate correlation and regression statistics},
author = {Grange, Stuart K and Lewis, Alastair C and Carslaw,
David C},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
volume = 145,
pages = {128--134},
year = 2016,
publisher = {Pergamon}
}
@article{lewis2015,
title = {Vehicle emissions: Diesel pollution long
under-reported},
author = {Lewis, Alastair C and Carslaw, David C and Kelly,
Frank J},
journal = {Nature},
volume = 526,
number = 7572,
pages = {195--195},
year = 2015,
publisher = {Nature Publishing Group}
}
@article{kirchstetter1996,
title = {Measurement of nitrous acid in motor vehicle
exhaust},
author = {Kirchstetter, Thomas W and Harley, Robert A and
Littlejohn, David},
journal = {Environmental Science \& Technology},
volume = 30,
number = 9,
pages = {2843--2849},
year = 1996,
publisher = {ACS Publications}
}
@article{kelly2011a,
title = {{The London low emission zone baseline study.}},
author = {Kelly, Frank and Armstrong, B and Atkinson, R and
Anderson, H Ross and Barratt, B and Beevers, S and
Cook, D and Green, D and Derwent, D and Mudway, I
and Wilkinson, P},
journal = {Research Report (Health Effects Institute)},
number = 163,
pages = {3--79},
year = 2011
}
@Misc{tfl2008,
author = {TfL},
title = {{London Low Emission Zone Impacts Monitoring
Baseline Report, July 2008. Transport for London.}},
year = 2008
}
@article{kleefeld2014,
Author = {Chen, Yuche and Borken-Kleefeld, Jens},
Title = {{Real-driving emissions from cars and light
commercial vehicles Results from 13 years remote
sensing at Zurich/CH}},
Journal = {{Atmospheric Environment}},
Year = {{2014}},
Volume = {{88}},
Pages = {{157-164}},
Abstract = {{We report on long-term remote sensing measurements
of light duty vehicle emissions at one site close to
Zurich/Switzerland. The time series of annual
measurements at the same site between 2000 and 2012,
the same season, and virtually the same instrument
is unique, probably worldwide. We analyze the
development of unit exhaust emissions from model
years 1985 until 2012, covering all five Euro
emission limit stages in force. NOx emissions from
both diesel cars and light commercial vehicles have
actually increased in real-driving over time
although emission limits have been progressively
tightened. This behavior is explained mostly by a
significant discrepancy between engine conditions
during real-driving and the homologation test
procedure. This discrepancy is not important for the
other pollutants or for gasoline light duty
vehicles, for which the emission control equipment
is found working over a wide range of engine
conditions. Our results confirm emission factors
from the latest HBEFA model when deterioration and
engine load are accounted for. Recent remote sensing
measurements of diesel cars and light commercial
vehicles in London are at the same or higher
levels. However, given that engine load is much
lower in London, this coincidence is rather
puzzling. A key uncertainty is the amount of primary
NO2 in the exhaust, and potential systematic
differences between dominant brands in European
countries. Both needs further investigation. (C)
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.}},
Publisher = {{PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD}},
Address = {{THE BOULEVARD, LANGFORD LANE, KIDLINGTON, OXFORD
OX5 1GB, ENGLAND}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{Borken-Kleefeld, J (Reprint Author), Int Inst Appl
Syst Anal, Schlosspl 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria.
Chen, Yuche, Univ Calif Davis, Dept Civil \&
Environm Engn, Davis, CA USA. Borken-Kleefeld,
Jens, Int Inst Appl Syst Anal, A-2361 Laxenburg,
Austria.}},
DOI = {{10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.01.040}},
ISSN = {{1352-2310}},
EISSN = {{1873-2844}},
Keywords = {{Emission factor; Diesel; NOx; Light commercial
vehicles; Engine load; Deterioration; HBEFA}},
Keywords-Plus ={{ON-ROAD EMISSIONS; EXHAUST EMISSIONS; DUTY
VEHICLES; NOX}},
Research-Areas ={{Environmental Sciences \& Ecology; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Environmental Sciences; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Author-Email = {{[email protected]}},
Funding-Acknowledgement ={{HASA's Young Scientists Summer}},
Funding-Text = {{The authors are grateful to the provision of remote
sensing data by AWEL Zurich (G-M Alt), and
gratefully acknowledge the discussions with S.
Hausberger and M.Rexeis (TU Graz). The work of YC
was supported by a grant for HASA's Young Scientists
Summer Program 2012.}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{27}},
Usage-Count-Since-2013 ={{15}},
Journal-ISO = {{Atmos. Environ.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{AG0KL}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000335104300018}},
}
@article{bishop2015,
title = {Reactive Nitrogen Species Emission Trends in Three
Light-/Medium-Duty United States Fleets},
author = {Bishop, Gary A and Stedman, Donald H},
journal = {Environmental Science \& Technology},
volume = 49,
number = 18,
pages = {11234--11240},
year = 2015,
publisher = {ACS Publications}
}
@article{Lee2015,
Author = {Lee, James D. and Helfter, Carole and Purvis, Ruth
M. and Beevers, Sean D. and Carslaw, David C. and
Lewis, Alastair C. and Moller, Sarah J. and Tremper,
Anja and Vaughan, Adam and Nemitz, Eiko G.},
Title = {{Measurement of \nox Fluxes from a Tall Tower in
Central London, UK and Comparison with Emissions
Inventories}},
Journal = {{Environmental Science \& Technology}},
Year = {{2015}},
Volume = {{49}},
Number = {{2}},
Pages = {{1025-1034}},
Abstract = {{Direct measurements of NOx concentration and flux
were made from a tall tower in central London, UK as
part of the Clean Air for London (ClearfLo)
project. Fast time resolution (10 Hz) NO and NO2
concentrations were measured and combined with fast
vertical wind measurements to provide top-down flux
estimates using the eddy covariance
technique. Measured NOx fluxes were usually positive
and ranged from close to zero at night to 2000-8000
ng m(-2) s(-1) during the day. Peak fluxes were
usually observed in the morning, coincident with the
maximum traffic flow. Measurements of the NOx flux
have been scaled and compared to the UK National
Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) estimate of
NOx emission for the measurement footprint. The
measurements are on average 80\% higher than the
NAEI emission inventory for all of
London. Observations made in westerly airflow (from
parts of London where traffic is a smaller fraction
of the NOx source) showed a better agreement on
average with the inventory. The observations suggest
that the emissions inventory is poorest at
estimating NOx when traffic is the dominant source,
in this case from an easterly direction from the BT
Tower. Agreement between the measurements and the
London Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (LAEI) are
better, due to the more explicit treatment of
traffic flow by this more detailed inventory. The
flux observations support previous tailpipe
observations of higher NOx emitted from the London
vehicle diesel fleet than is represented in the NAEI
or predicted for several EURO emission control
technologies. Higher-than-anticipated vehicle NOx
is likely responsible for the significant
discrepancies that exist in London between observed
NOx and long-term NOx projections.}},
Publisher = {{AMER CHEMICAL SOC}},
Address = {{1155 16TH ST, NW, WASHINGTON, DC 20036 USA}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{Lee, JD (Reprint Author), Univ York, Dept Chem,
York YO10 5DD, N Yorkshire, England. Lee, James D.;
Purvis, Ruth M.; Lewis, Alastair C.; Moller, Sarah
J., Univ York, Natl Ctr Atmospher Sci, York YO10
5DD, N Yorkshire, England. Lee, James D.; Purvis,
Ruth M.; Moller, Sarah J.; Vaughan, Adam, Univ York,
Dept Chem, York YO10 5DD, N Yorkshire, England.
Helfter, Carole; Nemitz, Eiko G., Edinburgh Res Stn,
Ctr Ecol \& Hydrol, Penicuik EH26 0QB, Midlothian,
Scotland. Beevers, Sean D.; Carslaw, David C.;
Tremper, Anja, Kings Coll London, Environm Res Grp,
London WC2R 2LS, England.}},
DOI = {{10.1021/es5049072}},
ISSN = {{0013-936X}},
EISSN = {{1520-5851}},
Keywords-Plus ={{VOLATILE ORGANIC-COMPOUNDS; EDDY COVARIANCE
MEASUREMENTS; AIR-QUALITY; URBAN; DIOXIDE;
CHEMISTRY; ECOSYSTEM; ALLERGEN; MODEL}},
Research-Areas ={{Engineering; Environmental Sciences \& Ecology}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Engineering, Environmental;
Environmental Sciences}},
Author-Email = {{[email protected]}},
ResearcherID-Numbers ={{Lewis, Alastair/A-6721-2008 Nemitz,
Eiko/I-6121-2012 Carslaw, David/}},
ORCID-Numbers ={{Lewis, Alastair/0000-0002-4075-3651 Nemitz,
Eiko/0000-0002-1765-6298 Carslaw,
David/0000-0003-0991-950X}},
Funding-Acknowledgement ={{UK Natural Environment Research Council
(NERC) ClearfLo project {[}NE/H00324X/1]}},
Funding-Text = {{We thank BT, in particular Robert Semon, Karen
Ahern, and Andy Beale for their support in granting
access to the BT Tower for the measurements and
logistical help in setting up the
instrumentation. Thanks go to Janet Barlow and
Christoforos Hallos for provision of the fast time
meteorological and boundary layer data at the BT
Tower. The work was funded through the UK Natural
Environment Research Council (NERC) ClearfLo project
(grant NE/H00324X/1).}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{47}},
Times-Cited = {{3}},
Journal-ISO = {{Environ. Sci. Technol.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{AZ6LY}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000348332400041}},
}
@Article{Carslaw2015,
author = {David C. Carslaw and Max Priestman and Martin L. Williams and Gregor B. Stewart and Sean D. Beevers},
title = {Performance of optimised \{SCR\} retrofit buses under urban driving and controlled conditions},
journal = {Atmospheric Environment},
year = {2015},
volume = {105},
pages = {70 - 77},
issn = {1352-2310},
doi = {10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.044},
keywords = {Selective catalytic reduction, Oxides of nitrogen, Nitrogen dioxide, Limit value, Vehicle emission remote sensing},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231015000679},
}
@Article{Ellison2013xs,
author = {Richard B. Ellison and Stephen P. Greaves and David A. Hensher},
title = {Five years of London’s low emission zone: Effects on vehicle fleet composition and air quality},
journal = {Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment},
year = {2013},
volume = {23},
pages = {25 - 33},
issn = {1361-9209},
abstract = {Abstract This paper uses registration and
enforcement information to assess the impact of
London’s low emission zone on vehicle registrations,
usage and air pollution. The zone was implemented in
a staged process in 2008 to reduce the emissions of
air pollutants of direct harm to human health. The
zone targeted the worst polluters, specifically
heavy diesel vehicles, buses and coaches by imposing
minimum emissions standards on vehicles operating in
an area covering most of Greater London. Several
years on it remains unclear how successful the zone
has been in meeting its stated objectives and what
improvements in pollution levels can be attributed
to the low emission zone. Results presented in this
paper suggest the rate of fleet turnover for
affected vehicle classes in London increased
substantially when the zone was first introduced
before returning to the national average in
subsequent years. Early evidence for light
commercial vehicles, which became subject to the
scheme in early 2012, shows a similar effect is
likely. Despite an overall growth in freight
vehicles operating in London, the number of pre-Euro
\{III\} vehicles has dropped and this has been
coupled with a switch from rigid vehicles to light
commercial vehicles and articulated
vehicles. Ambient air quality measurements show
concentrations of particulate matter within the low
emission zone have dropped by 2.46–3.07% compared to
just over 1% for areas just outside the
zone. However, no discernible differences are found
for \{NOX\} concentrations. },
doi = {10.1016/j.trd.2013.03.010},
keywords = {Low emission zone, Environmental policy, Air quality, Emission standards},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192091300059X},
}
@Misc{entec2010,
author = {ENTEC},
title = {UK ship emissions inventory. Final report.,
\url{http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/reports/cat15/1012131459_21897_Final_Report_291110.pdf}},
year = 2010,
}
@article{camalier2007,
Author = {Camalier, Louise and Cox, William and Dolwick, Pat},
Title = {{The effects of meteorology on ozone in urban areas
and their use in assessing ozone trends}},
Journal = {{Atmospheric Environment}},
Year = {{2007}},
Volume = {{41}},
Number = {{33}},
Pages = {{7127-7137}},
Abstract = {{The United States Environmental Protection Agency
issues periodic reports that describe air quality
trends in the US. For some pollutants, such as
ozone, both observed and meteorologically adjusted
trends are displayed. This paper describes an
improved statistical methodology for
meteorologically adjusting ozone trends as well as
characterizes the relationships between individual
meteorological parameters and ozone. A generalized
linear model that accommodates the nonlinear effects
of the meteorological variables was fit to data
collected for 39 major eastern US urban
areas. Overall, the model performs very well,
yielding R-2 Statistics as high as 0.80. The
analysis confirms that ozone is generally increasing
with increasing temperature and decreasing with
increasing relative humidity. Examination of the
spatial gradients of these responses show that the
effect of temperature on ozone is most pronounced in
the north while the opposite is true of relative
humidity. By including HYSPLIT-derived transport
wind direction and distance in the model, it is
shown that the largest incremental impact of wind
direction on ozone occurs along the periphery of the
study domain, which encompasses major NO, emission
sources. Published by Elsevier Ltd.}},
Publisher = {{PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD}},
Address = {{THE BOULEVARD, LANGFORD LANE, KIDLINGTON, OXFORD
OX5 1GB, ENGLAND}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{Camalier, L (Reprint Author), US EPA, Off Air Qual
Planning \& Standards, Res Triangle Pk, NC 27711
USA. US EPA, Off Air Qual Planning \& Standards,
Res Triangle Pk, NC 27711 USA. Natl Ocean \&
Atmospher Adm, Off Air Qual Planning \& Standards,
Res Triangle Pk, NC 27711 USA.}},
DOI = {{10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.04.061}},
ISSN = {{1352-2310}},
Keywords = {{ozone trends; generalized linear model;
meteorological adjustment; HYSPLIT; spatial
patterns}},
Research-Areas ={{Environmental Sciences \& Ecology; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Environmental Sciences; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Author-Email = {{[email protected]}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{17}},
Times-Cited = {{72}},
Journal-ISO = {{Atmos. Environ.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{231GE}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000250933800018}},
}
@article{barmpadimos2011,
Author = {Barmpadimos, I. and Hueglin, C. and Keller, J. and
Henne, S. and Prevot, A. S. H.},
Title = {{Influence of meteorology on PM$_10$ trends and
variability in Switzerland from 1991 to 2008}},
Journal = {{Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics}},
Year = {{2011}},
Volume = {{11}},
Number = {{4}},
Pages = {{1813-1835}},
Abstract = {{Measurements of airborne particles with aerodynamic
diameter of 10 mu m or less (PM10) and
meteorological observations are available from 13
stations distributed throughout Switzerland and
representing different site types. The effect of all
available meteorological variables on PM10
concentrations was estimated using Generalized
Additive Models. Data from each season were treated
separately. The most important variables affecting
PM10 concentrations in winter, autumn and spring
were wind gust, the precipitation rate of the
previous day, the precipitation rate of the current
day and the boundary layer depth. In summer, the
most important variables were wind gust, Julian day
and afternoon temperature. In addition, temperature
was important in winter. A ``weekend effect{''} was
identified due to the selection of variable ``day of
the week{''} for some stations. Thursday contributes
to an increase of 13\% whereas Sunday contributes to
a reduction of 12\% of PM10 concentrations compared
to Monday on average over 9 stations for the yearly
data. The estimated effects of meteorological
variables were removed from the measured PM10 values
to obtain the PM10 variability and trends due to
other factors and processes, mainly PM10 emissions
and formation of secondary PM10 due to trace gas
emissions. After applying this process, the PM10
variability was much lower, especially in winter
where the ratio of adjusted over measured mean
squared error was 0.27 on average over all
considered sites. Moreover, PM10 trends in winter
were more negative after the adjustment for
meteorology and they ranged between -1.25 mu g m(-3)
yr(-1) and 0.07 mu g m(-3) yr(-1). The adjusted
trends for the other seasons ranged between -1.34 mu
g m(-3) yr(-1) and -0.26 mu g m(-3) yr(-1) in
spring, -1.40 mu g m(-3) yr(-1) and -0.28 mu g m(-3)
yr(-1) in summer and -1.28 mu g m(-3) yr(-1) and
-0.11 mu g m(-3) yr(-1) in autumn. The estimated
trends of meteorologically adjusted PM10 were in
general non-linear. The two urban street sites
considered in the study, Bern and Lausanne,
experienced the largest reduction in measured and
adjusted PM10 concentrations. This indicates a
verifiable effect of traffic emission reduction
strategies implemented during the past two
decades. The average adjusted yearly trends for
rural, urban background and urban street stations
were -0.37, -0.53 and -1.2 mu g m(-3) yr(-1)
respectively. The adjusted yearly trends for all
stations range from -0.15 mu g m(-3) yr(-1) to -1.2
mu g m(-3) yr(-1) or -1.2\% yr(-1) to -3.3\%
yr(-1).}},
Publisher = {{COPERNICUS GESELLSCHAFT MBH}},
Address = {{BAHNHOFSALLEE 1E, GOTTINGEN, 37081, GERMANY}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{Prevot, ASH (Reprint Author), Paul Scherrer Inst,
Villigen, Switzerland. Barmpadimos, I.; Keller, J.;
Prevot, A. S. H., Paul Scherrer Inst, Villigen,
Switzerland. Hueglin, C.; Henne, S., Swiss Fed Labs
Mat Sci \& Technol, Dubendorf, Switzerland.}},
DOI = {{10.5194/acp-11-1813-2011}},
ISSN = {{1680-7316}},
Keywords-Plus ={{NORTH-ATLANTIC OSCILLATION; GENERALIZED
ADDITIVE-MODELS; SUBMICRON ORGANIC AEROSOLS; AMBIENT
AIR-POLLUTION; PARTICULATE MATTER; MASS-SPECTRA;
EMISSIONS; TRANSPORT; EUROPE; URBAN}},
Research-Areas ={{Meteorology \& Atmospheric Sciences}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Meteorology \& Atmospheric Sciences}},
Author-Email = {{[email protected]}},
ResearcherID-Numbers ={{Prevot, Andre/C-6677-2008 Henne,
Stephan/A-3467-2009 Keller, Johannes/C-7732-2009}},
ORCID-Numbers ={{Prevot, Andre/0000-0002-9243-8194 }},
Funding-Acknowledgement ={{Swiss State Secretariat for Education and
Research}},
Funding-Text = {{This study was supported by the COST fund of the
Swiss State Secretariat for Education and
Research. Many thanks to Urs Baltensperger and
Ernest Weingartner for useful discussions. A
considerable part of the data used in this study
were provided by MeteoSwiss and the Swiss Federal
Office for the Environment (FOEN). The NAO data have
been supplied by Phil Jones. Data up to 1999 were
downloaded from
http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/nao/ and data
after 1999 were downloaded from Tim Osborne's NAO
webpage http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/similar to
timo/datapages/naoi.htm.}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{65}},
Times-Cited = {{32}},
Journal-ISO = {{Atmos. Chem. Phys.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{727JW}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000287795700028}},
}
@article{libiseller2005,
Author = {Libiseller, C and Grimvall, A and Walden, J and
Saari, H},
Title = {{Meteorological normalisation and non-parametric
smoothing for quality assessment and trend analysis
of tropospheric ozone data}},
Journal = {{Environmental Monitoring and Assessment}},
Year = {{2005}},
Volume = {{100}},
Number = {{1-3}},
Pages = {{33-52}},
Abstract = {{Despite extensive efforts to ensure that sampling
and installation and maintenance of instruments are
as efficient as possible when monitoring air
pollution data, there is still an indisputable need
for statistical post processing (quality
assessment). We examined data on tropospheric ozone
and found that meteorological normalisation can
reveal (i) errors that have not been eliminated by
established procedures for quality assurance and
control of collected data, as well as (ii)
inaccuracies that may have a detrimental effect on
the results of statistical tests for temporal
trends. Moreover, we observed that the quality
assessment of collected data could be further
strengthened by combining meteorological
normalisation with non-parametric smoothing
techniques for seasonal adjustment and detection of
sudden shifts in level. Closer examination of
apparent trends in tropospheric ozone records from
EMEP (European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme)
sites in Finland showed that, even if potential raw
data errors were taken into account, there was
strong evidence of upward trends during winter and
early spring.}},
Publisher = {{SPRINGER}},
Address = {{VAN GODEWIJCKSTRAAT 30, 3311 GZ DORDRECHT,
NETHERLANDS}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{Libiseller, C (Reprint Author), Linkoping Univ,
Dept Math, S-58183 Linkoping, Sweden. Linkoping
Univ, Dept Math, S-58183 Linkoping, Sweden. Finnish
Meteorol Inst, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland.}},
DOI = {{10.1007/s10661-005-7059-2}},
ISSN = {{0167-6369}},
Keywords = {{background ozone; level shifts; natural
fluctuation; seasonal variation; temporal trend}},
Keywords-Plus ={{MODEL SELECTION; URBAN OZONE; TRANSPORT; RIVERS}},
Research-Areas ={{Environmental Sciences \& Ecology}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Environmental Sciences}},
Author-Email = {{[email protected]}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{28}},
Times-Cited = {{3}},
Journal-ISO = {{Environ. Monit. Assess.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{896YK}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000226970300004}},
}
@article{ bloomfield1996,
Author = {Bloomfield, P and Royle, JA and Steinberg, LJ and
Yang, Q},
Title = {{Accounting for meteorological effects in measuring
urban ozone levels and trends}},
Journal = {{Atmospheric Environment}},
Year = {{1996}},
Volume = {{30}},
Number = {{17}},
Pages = {{3067-3077}},
Abstract = {{Observed ozone concentrations are valuable
indicators of possible health and environmental
impacts. However, they are also used to monitor
changes and trends in the sources of ozone and of
its precursors, and for this purpose the influence
of meteorological variables is a confounding Factor,
This paper examines ozone concentrations and
meteorology in the Chicago area. The data are
described using least absolute deviations and local
regression. The key relationships observed in these
analyses are then used to construct a nonlinear
regression model relating ozone to meteorology. The
model can be used to estimate that part of the trend
in ozone levels that cannot be accounted for by
trends in meteorology and to `adjust' observed ozone
concentrations for anomalous weather
conditions. Copyright (C) 1996 Published by Elsevier
Science Ltd}},
Publisher = {{PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD}},
Address = {{THE BOULEVARD, LANGFORD LANE, KIDLINGTON, OXFORD,
ENGLAND OX5 1GB}},
Type = {{Article}},
Language = {{English}},
Affiliation = {{NATL INST STAT \& SCI,RES TRIANGLE PK,NC 27709. N
CAROLINA STATE UNIV,DEPT STAT,RES TRIANGLE PK,NC
27709.}},
DOI = {{10.1016/1352-2310(95)00347-9}},
ISSN = {{1352-2310}},
Keywords = {{ozone concentration; meteorological adjustment;
nonlinear regression; nonparametric regression;
median polish}},
Keywords-Plus ={{JACKKNIFE; REGRESSION; BOOTSTRAP; SCALE}},
Research-Areas ={{Environmental Sciences \& Ecology; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Web-of-Science-Categories ={{Environmental Sciences; Meteorology \&
Atmospheric Sciences}},
Number-of-Cited-References ={{18}},
Times-Cited = {{104}},
Journal-ISO = {{Atmos. Environ.}},
Doc-Delivery-Number ={{UP627}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:A1996UP62700013}},
}
@Misc{sjodin2008,
author = {Sj\"odin, {\AA} and Jerksj\"o, M.},
title = {{Evaluation of European road transport emission
models against on-road emission data as measured by
optical remote sensing. In: Proceedings of the 16th
International Symposium on Transport and Air
Pollution, Graz, 16-17 June 2008, 96-105. VKM-THD
Mitteilungen, Vol. 91, Technische Universit\"at
Graz. ISBN No 987-3-85125-016-9.}},
year = 2008
}
@Misc{cornwell2013,
author = {Cornwell, R and Hulbert, S and Anderson, J and
Keenan, M},
title = {{Air Quality Emissions Impacts of Low CO$_2$
Technology for Buses. Report RD.13/125301.6.}},
month = {October},
year = 2013
}
@article{burgard2006c,
Author = {Burgard, Daniel A. and Bishop, Gary A. and
Stadtmuller, Ryan S. and Dalton, Thomas R. and
Stedman, Donald H.},
Title = {{Spectroscopy applied to on-road mobile source
emissions}},
Journal = {{Applied Spectroscopy}},
Year = {{2006}},
Volume = {{60}},
Number = {{5}},
Pages = {{135A-148A}},
ISSN = {{0003-7028}},
}
@article{bishop2012,
Author = {Bishop, Gary A. and Schuchmann, Brent G. and
Stedman, Donald H.},
Title = {{Emission Changes Resulting from the San Pedro Bay,
California Ports Truck Retirement Program}},
Journal = {{Environmental Science \& Technology}},
Year = {{2012}},
Volume = {{46}},
Number = {{1}},
Pages = {{551-558}},
DOI = {{10.1021/es202392g}},
ISSN = {{0013-936X}},
Unique-ID = {{ISI:000298762900073}},
}
@Misc{who2013,
author = {WHO},
title = {{World Health Organisation, Review of evidence on
health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP project,
WHO Regional Office for Europe}},
year = 2013
}
@Misc{carb2000,
author = {CARB},
title = {{Risk Reduction Plan to Reduce Particulate Matter
Emissions from Diesel-Fueled Engines and Vehicles;
California Air Resources Board: Sacramento, CA}},
year = 2000
}
@article{kozawa2014,
title = {Verifying emission reductions from heavy-duty diesel
trucks operating on southern California freeways.},
author = {Kozawa, K. H. and Park, S. S. and Mara, S. L. and
Herner, J. D.},
journal = {Environmental Science \& Technology},
volume = 48,
pages = {1475--1483},
year = 2014
}
@Misc{LAEI2010,
author = {GLA},
title = {London Atmospheric Emissions Inventory 2010},
month = {July},
year = 2013,
url =
{http://data.london.gov.uk/datastore/package/london-atmospheric-emissions-inventory-2010}
}
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