diff --git a/.github/workflows/main.yml b/.github/workflows/main.yml index 2b3ae3d5c3..d17b7286a9 100644 --- a/.github/workflows/main.yml +++ b/.github/workflows/main.yml @@ -24,8 +24,19 @@ jobs: rustup --version rustc -Vv mdbook --version + + # mdBook does not currently have particularly good support for “external” + # crates. To make the test suite work correctly with `trpl`, we must first + # build `trpl` itself (`mdbook` will not do it), and then explicitly pass + # its `deps` path as a library search path for `mdbook test`. That will make + # sure all the crates can be resolved when running the tests. + - name: Build `trpl` crate + run: | + cd packages/trpl + cargo build - name: Run tests - run: mdbook test + run: + mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps package_tests: name: Run package tests runs-on: ubuntu-latest diff --git a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 1b74425fe2..9513538f57 100644 --- a/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/2018-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The 2018 edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/2018-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/Cargo.lock b/Cargo.lock index d54e8284e1..493ab8e687 100644 --- a/Cargo.lock +++ b/Cargo.lock @@ -318,9 +318,9 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows-targets" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "6f0713a46559409d202e70e28227288446bf7841d3211583a4b53e3f6d96e7eb" +checksum = "9b724f72796e036ab90c1021d4780d4d3d648aca59e491e6b98e725b84e99973" dependencies = [ "windows_aarch64_gnullvm", "windows_aarch64_msvc", @@ -334,51 +334,51 @@ dependencies = [ [[package]] name = "windows_aarch64_gnullvm" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" 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"windows_x86_64_msvc" -version = "0.52.5" +version = "0.52.6" source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" -checksum = "bec47e5bfd1bff0eeaf6d8b485cc1074891a197ab4225d504cb7a1ab88b02bf0" +checksum = "589f6da84c646204747d1270a2a5661ea66ed1cced2631d546fdfb155959f9ec" [[package]] name = "xattr" diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml index 2bddb66f9f..20fc14643d 100644 --- a/Cargo.toml +++ b/Cargo.toml @@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ exclude = [ "linkchecker", # linkchecker is part of the CI workflow "listings", # these are intentionally distinct from the workspace "tmp", # listings are built here when updating output via tools/update-rustc.sh + "packages/trpl", # manages its own dependencies as a standalone crate # These are used as path dependencies in `rust-lang/rust` (since we are not # publishing them to crates.io), so they cannot be part of this workspace, diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 9648db0ae0..b4426bd492 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -73,7 +73,8 @@ $ start chrome.exe .\book\index.html # Windows (Cmd) To run the tests: ```bash -$ mdbook test +$ cd packages/trpl +$ mdbook test --library-path packages/trpl/target/debug/deps ``` ## Contributing diff --git a/ci/dictionary.txt b/ci/dictionary.txt index 6329ed1238..057d2a7f6e 100644 --- a/ci/dictionary.txt +++ b/ci/dictionary.txt @@ -55,6 +55,7 @@ bool boolean Boolean Booleans +booleans Bors BorrowMutError BoxMeUp @@ -109,6 +110,7 @@ deallocate deallocated deallocating deallocation +debounce debuginfo decl decrementing @@ -145,10 +147,12 @@ DisplayBacktrace DivAssign DraftPost DSTs +durations ebook ebooks Edsger egular +ElementRef else's emoji encodings @@ -179,6 +183,7 @@ filesystem's filesystems filmmaking Firefox +FirstAwaitPoint FnMut FnOnce formatter @@ -187,6 +192,8 @@ FrenchToast FromIterator FromResidual frontend +FuturesUnordered +GetAwaitPoint getrandom getter getters @@ -197,6 +204,7 @@ grapheme Grapheme growable gzip +handoff hardcode hardcoded hardcoding @@ -241,7 +249,9 @@ inline instantiation internet interoperate +IntoFuture IntoIterator +intra InvalidDigit invariants ioerror @@ -256,6 +266,7 @@ isize iter iterator's JavaScript +JoinAll JoinHandle Kay's kinded @@ -288,12 +299,15 @@ lval macOS Matsakis mathematic +mdbook memoization metadata Metadata metaprogramming mibbit Mibbit +microcontroller +microcontrollers millis minigrep mixup @@ -307,10 +321,12 @@ monomorphized MoveMessage Mozilla mpsc +MSRV msvc MulAssign multibyte multithreaded +multithreading mutex mutex's Mutex @@ -318,6 +334,7 @@ mutexes Mutexes MutexGuard mutext +MyAsyncStateMachine MyBox myprogram namespace @@ -358,7 +375,9 @@ OurError OutlinePrint overloadable overread +PageTitleFuture PanicPayload +parallelizable param parameterize ParseIntError @@ -371,6 +390,7 @@ PlaceholderType polymorphism PoolCreationError portia +postfix powershell PowerShell powi @@ -396,6 +416,8 @@ RangeTo RangeFull README READMEs +ReadFinished +ReceiverStream rect recurse recv @@ -438,6 +460,7 @@ sampleproject screenshot searchstring SecondaryColor +SecondAwaitPoint SelectBox semver SemVer @@ -455,6 +478,7 @@ SliceIndex Smalltalk snuck someproject +SomeType someusername SPDX spdx @@ -470,6 +494,7 @@ stdlib stdout steveklabnik's stringify +StreamExt Stroustrup Stroustrup's struct @@ -502,6 +527,7 @@ TcpListener TcpStream templating test's +TextAwaitPoint TextField That'd there'd @@ -514,6 +540,8 @@ tlborm tlsv TODO TokenStream +Tokio +tokio toml TOML toolchain @@ -538,6 +566,7 @@ uncomment Uncomment uncommenting unevaluated +unhandled Uninstalling uninstall unittests @@ -556,6 +585,7 @@ username USERPROFILE usize UsState +util utils vals variable's diff --git a/dot/trpl17-01.dot b/dot/trpl17-01.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..97bd15e894 --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-01.dot @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + + // makes ordering between subgraphs work + newrank = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + subgraph cluster_task_a { + label = "Task A"; + + A1; + A2; + A3; + A4; + + A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + + // for vertical alignment purposes only + A0 [style = invis;]; + + // Makes the heights line up between the boxes. + A4 -> A0 [style = invis;]; + } + + subgraph cluster_task_b { + label = "Task B"; + + // for horizontal alignment purposes only + // newrank = true; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + + B1; + B2; + B3; + + B0 -> B1 -> B2 -> B3 [style = invis;]; + } + + A1 -> B1 -> A2 -> B2 -> A3 -> A4 -> B3; +} \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dot/trpl17-02.dot b/dot/trpl17-02.dot new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..07d66a3e4b --- /dev/null +++ b/dot/trpl17-02.dot @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +digraph { + dpi = 300.0; + + rankdir = "LR"; + splines = false; + cluster = true; + + node [shape = diamond;]; + + // The graphs end up with the correct order, i.e. Task 1 *above* Task 2, when + // this is first. + subgraph cluster_ColleagueB { + label = "Task 2"; + B1 -> B2 -> B3; + + B0 [style = invis;]; + B3 -> B0 [style = invis;] 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f8e641d6d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // ANCHOR: futures + let tx_fut = async { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + trpl::join(tx_fut, rx_fut).await; + // ANCHOR_END: futures + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + trpl::join!(tx1_fut, tx_fut, rx_fut); + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git 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for mdbook test + +use std::time::Duration; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + // ANCHOR_END: here + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/Cargo.lock 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std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + let rx_fut = async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }; + + let tx_fut = async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }; + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![Box::new(tx1_fut), Box::new(rx_fut), Box::new(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/Cargo.lock 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for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + }); + + // ANCHOR: here + let futures: Vec>>> = + vec![Box::pin(tx1_fut), Box::pin(rx_fut), Box::pin(tx_fut)]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff 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`trpl` as a dependency of package `async_await v0.1.0 (/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18)` + +Caused by: + failed to load source for dependency `trpl` + +Caused by: + Unable to update /Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl + +Caused by: + failed to read `/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/tmp/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml` + +Caused by: + No such file or directory (os error 2) diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..41820fc8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{ + future::Future, + pin::{pin, Pin}, + time::Duration, +}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + let tx1 = tx.clone(); + // ANCHOR: here + let tx1_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("hi"), + String::from("from"), + String::from("the"), + String::from("future"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx1.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + // ANCHOR_END: here + // ANCHOR: here + let rx_fut = pin!(async { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { + println!("received '{value}'"); + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let tx_fut = pin!(async move { + // --snip-- + // ANCHOR_END: here + let vals = vec![ + String::from("more"), + String::from("messages"), + String::from("for"), + String::from("you"), + ]; + + for val in vals { + tx.send(val).unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)).await; + } + // ANCHOR: here + }); + + let futures: Vec>> = + vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::join_all(futures).await; + }); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/Cargo.lock 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for mdbook test + +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: here + let one_ms = Duration::from_millis(1); + + let a = async { + println!("'a' started."); + slow("a", 30); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::sleep(one_ms).await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // ANCHOR_END: here + + trpl::race(a, b).await; + }); +} + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2e0f3ebedb --- /dev/null +++ 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trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("a", 20); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'a' finished."); + }; + + let b = async { + println!("'b' started."); + slow("b", 75); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 10); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 15); + trpl::yield_now().await; + slow("b", 35); + trpl::yield_now().await; + println!("'b' finished."); + }; + // ANCHOR_END: yields + + trpl::race(a, b).await; + }); +} + +fn slow(name: &str, ms: u64) { + thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(ms)); + println!("'{name}' ran for {ms}ms"); +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..3be4eaaa53 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,540 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "addr2line" +version = "0.21.0" +source = 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d2edded63d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_millis(10)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: declaration +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // Here is where our implementation will go! +} +// ANCHOR_END: declaration diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 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/dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{future::Future, time::Duration}; + +// ANCHOR: implementation +use trpl::Either; + +// --snip-- +// ANCHOR: implementation + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await; + "Finally finished" + }; + + match timeout(slow, Duration::from_secs(2)).await { + Ok(message) => println!("Succeeded with '{message}'"), + Err(duration) => { + println!("Failed after {} seconds", duration.as_secs()) + } + } + }); +} + +async fn timeout( + future_to_try: F, + max_time: Duration, +) -> Result { + // ANCHOR: implementation + match trpl::race(future_to_try, trpl::sleep(max_time)).await { + Either::Left(output) => Ok(output), + Either::Right(_) => Err(max_time), + } + // ANCHOR_END: implementation +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/Cargo.lock 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b4dda21d52 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +// ANCHOR: messages +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let mut messages = + pin!(get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200))); + + while let Some(result) = messages.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: intervals +fn get_intervals() 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a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bc10dd48c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals(); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = merged.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in 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= "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..72da09d75f --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + // ANCHOR: main + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval: {count}")) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: main + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let mut count = 0; + loop { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + count += 1; + tx.send(count).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 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+ let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(100)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + // ANCHOR_END: throttle + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(message) => println!("{message}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }) +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")).unwrap(); + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +// ANCHOR: errors +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep 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b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e094f067f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..f1f3d4b0c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,67 @@ +extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test + +use std::{pin::pin, thread, time::Duration}; + +use trpl::{ReceiverStream, Stream, StreamExt}; + +fn main() { + trpl::run(async { + let messages = get_messages().timeout(Duration::from_millis(200)); + let intervals = get_intervals() + .map(|count| format!("Interval #{count}")) + .throttle(Duration::from_millis(500)) + .timeout(Duration::from_secs(10)); + let merged = messages.merge(intervals).take(20); + let mut stream = pin!(merged); + + while let Some(result) = stream.next().await { + match result { + Ok(item) => println!("{item}"), + Err(reason) => eprintln!("Problem: {reason:?}"), + } + } + }); +} + +fn get_messages() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + trpl::spawn_task(async move { + let messages = ["a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f", "g", "h", "i", "j"]; + + for (index, message) in messages.into_iter().enumerate() { + let time_to_sleep = if index % 2 == 0 { 100 } else { 300 }; + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(time_to_sleep)).await; + + if let Err(send_error) = tx.send(format!("Message: '{message}'")) { + eprintln!("Cannot send message '{message}': {send_error}"); + break; + } + } + }); + + ReceiverStream::new(rx) +} + +// ANCHOR: threads +fn get_intervals() -> impl Stream { + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + + // This is 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their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html +[dependencies] +trpl = { path = "../../../packages/trpl" } diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1a508bf582 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +extern crate trpl; // for mdbook test + +// ANCHOR: all +use std::{thread, time::Duration}; + +fn main() { + let (tx, mut rx) = trpl::channel(); + + thread::spawn(move || { + for i in 1..11 { + tx.send(i).unwrap(); + thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1)); + } + }); + + trpl::run(async { + while let Some(message) = rx.recv().await { + println!("{message}"); + } + }); +} +// ANCHOR_END: all diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..d30b928a6c --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.lock @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo. +# It is not intended for manual editing. +version = 3 + +[[package]] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..67729afc80 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +[package] +name = "async_await" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..10a18bc488 --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/output.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +$ cargo run +error: a bin target must be available for `cargo run` diff --git a/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..09a980c04d --- /dev/null +++ b/listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_>, + ) -> Poll>; +} + +// ANCHOR: here +trait StreamExt: Stream { + async fn next(&mut self) -> Option + where + Self: Unpin; + + // other methods... +} +// ANCHOR_END: here diff --git a/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..e579745ea9 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/CHANGELOG.md @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +# CHANGELOG + +## 0.1.0 + +Initial release! Adds support code for the first draft of the new async chapter of the book. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..bd14bf21d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/CONTRIBUTING.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +# Contributing + +## 🚧 Under construction! 🚧 + +Thanks for your interesting in helping us with this! At the moment, we are not +ready for contributions, though. + +Once we stabilize the contents of the book, including the APIs we are +re-exporting here and the little bits of functionality implemented in that +crate, we will gladly take all the help we can get for maintaining this. 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+checksum = "fa4f8080344d4671fb4e831a13ad1e68092748387dfc4f55e356242fae12ce3e" +dependencies = [ + "proc-macro2", + "quote", + "syn", +] + +[[package]] +name = "zeroize" +version = "1.8.1" +source = "registry+https://github.com/rust-lang/crates.io-index" +checksum = "ced3678a2879b30306d323f4542626697a464a97c0a07c9aebf7ebca65cd4dde" diff --git a/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..62a602ea19 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/Cargo.toml @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +[package] +name = "trpl" +version = "0.1.0" +edition = "2021" +license = "MIT OR Apache-2.0" +description = "A support crate for The Rust Programming Language book" +readme = "README.md" +repository = "https://github.com/rust-lang/book" +authors = ["Chris Krycho "] + +# See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html + +[dependencies] +futures = "0.3" +reqwest = "0.12" +scraper = "0.20" +tokio = { version = "1", default-features = false, features = [ + "fs", + "rt-multi-thread", + "sync", + "time", +] } +tokio-stream = "0.1" diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..38634daab0 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-APACHE @@ -0,0 +1,201 @@ + Apache License + Version 2.0, January 2004 + http://www.apache.org/licenses/ + +TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION + +1. 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We also recommend that a + file or class name and description of purpose be included on the + same "printed page" as the copyright notice for easier + identification within third-party archives. + +Copyright 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); +you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. +You may obtain a copy of the License at + + http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 + +Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software +distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, +WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. +See the License for the specific language governing permissions and +limitations under the License. diff --git a/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..25597d5838 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/LICENSE-MIT @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +Copyright (c) 2010 The Rust Project Developers + +Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any +person obtaining a copy of this software and associated +documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the +Software without restriction, including without +limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, +publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of +the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software +is furnished to do so, subject to the following +conditions: + +The above copyright notice and this permission notice +shall be included in all copies or substantial portions +of the Software. + +THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF +ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED +TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT +SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY +CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION +OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR +IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER +DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. diff --git a/packages/trpl/README.md b/packages/trpl/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..7d22504888 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +# The Rust Programming Language Book Crate + +![Build Status](https://github.com/chriskrycho/trpl-crate/workflows/CI/badge.svg) + +This repository is the home of the `trpl` crate used in _The Rust Programming +Language_ book materials. + +This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for two +main reasons: + +1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can add + just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and likewise + use only one set of imports. + +2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since we + control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will never be + broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 release at some + point. + +## Requirements + +This crate currently requires at least Rust 1.79. diff --git a/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..999cb6e273 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/src/lib.rs @@ -0,0 +1,150 @@ +//! A support crate for [_The Rust Programming Language_][trpl]. +//! +//! [trpl]: https://doc.rust-lang.org/book +//! +//! This crate mostly just re-exports items from *other* crates. It exists for +//! two main reasons: +//! +//! 1. So that as you read along in _The Rust Programming Language_, you can +//! add just one dependency, rather than however many we end up with, and +//! likewise use only one set of imports. +//! +//! 2. So that we can more easily guarantee it keeps building and working. Since +//! we control the contents of this crate and when it changes, readers will +//! never be broken by upstream changes, e.g. if Tokio does a breaking 2.0 +//! release at some point. + +// For direct use within the `trpl` crate, *not* re-exported. +use std::{future::Future, pin::pin}; + +use futures::future; + +// Re-exports, to be used like `trpl::join`. +pub use futures::{ + future::{join, join3, join_all, Either}, + join, +}; +pub use tokio::{ + fs::read_to_string, + runtime::Runtime, + // We use the `unbounded` variants because they most closely match the APIs + // from `std::sync::mpsc::channel`. Tokio's API choices are interesting: + // + // | `tokio::sync::mpsc` | `std::sync::mpsc` | + // | ------------------- | ----------------- | + // | `channel` | `sync_channel` | + // | `unbounded_channel` | `channel` | + // + // The book collapses these differences for pedagogical simplicity, so that + // readers are not asking why `unbounded` is now important and can focus on + // the more important differences between sync and async APIs. + sync::mpsc::{ + unbounded_channel as channel, UnboundedReceiver as Receiver, + UnboundedSender as Sender, + }, + task::{spawn as spawn_task, yield_now, JoinHandle}, + time::{interval, sleep}, +}; + +pub use tokio_stream::{ + iter as stream_from_iter, + wrappers::{IntervalStream, UnboundedReceiverStream as ReceiverStream}, + Stream, StreamExt, +}; + +/// Run a single future to completion on a bespoke Tokio `Runtime`. +/// +/// Every time you call this, a new instance of `tokio::runtime::Runtime` will +/// be created (see the implementation for details: it is trivial). This is: +/// +/// - Reasonable for teaching purposes, in that you do not generally need to set +/// up more than one runtime anyway, and especially do not in basic code like +/// we are showing! +/// +/// - Not *that* far off from what Tokio itself does under the hood in its own +/// `tokio::main` macro for supporting `async fn main`. +pub fn run(future: F) -> F::Output { + let rt = Runtime::new().unwrap(); + rt.block_on(future) +} + +/// Run two futures, taking whichever finishes first and canceling the other. +/// +/// Notice that this is built on [`futures::future::select`], which has the +/// same overall semantics but does *not* drop the slower future. The idea there +/// is that you can work with the first result and then later *also* continue +/// waiting for the second future. +/// +/// We use the `race` semantics, where the slower future is simply dropped, for +/// the sake of simplicity in the examples: no need to deal with the tuple and +/// intentionally ignore the second future this way! +/// +/// Note that this only works as “simply” as it does because: +/// +/// - It takes ownership of the futures. +/// - It internally *pins* the futures. +/// - It throws away (rather than returning) the unused future (which is why it +/// can get away with pinning them). +pub async fn race(f1: F1, f2: F2) -> Either +where + F1: Future, + F2: Future, +{ + let f1 = pin!(f1); + let f2 = pin!(f2); + match future::select(f1, f2).await { + Either::Left((a, _f2)) => Either::Left(a), + Either::Right((b, _f1)) => Either::Right(b), + } +} + +/// Fetch data from a URL. For more convenient use in _The Rust Programming +/// Language_, panics instead of returning a [`Result`] if the request fails. +pub async fn get(url: &str) -> Response { + Response(reqwest::get(url).await.unwrap()) +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`reqwest::Response`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Response(reqwest::Response); + +impl Response { + /// Get the full response text. + /// + /// If the response cannot be deserialized, this panics instead of returning + /// a [`Result`] (for convenience in the demo). + pub async fn text(self) -> String { + self.0.text().await.unwrap() + } +} + +/// A thin wrapper around [`scraper::Html`] to make the demos in _The Rust +/// Programming Language_ substantially nicer to use. +pub struct Html { + inner: scraper::Html, +} + +impl Html { + /// Parse an HTML document from a string. + /// + /// This is just a thin wrapper around `scraper::Html::parse_document` to + /// keep the exported API surface simpler. + pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Html { + Html { + inner: scraper::Html::parse_document(source), + } + } + + /// Get the first item in the document matching a string selector. Returns + /// Some() + /// + /// If the selector is not a valid CSS selector, panics rather than + /// returning a [`Result`] for convenience. + pub fn select_first<'a>( + &'a self, + selector: &'a str, + ) -> Option> { + let selector = scraper::Selector::parse(selector).unwrap(); + self.inner.select(&selector).nth(0) + } +} diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..afc5f81864 --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/main.rs @@ -0,0 +1,242 @@ +//! Integration tests for the crate. +//! +//! These all live in a *single* integration test crate, `tests/integration`, +//! because each integration test is a dedicated binary crate which has to be +//! compiled separately. While that is not really a problem for a crate this +//! small, we have chosen to follow this “best practice” here as a good example. +//! +//! For more details on why you might prefer this pattern see [this post][post]. +//! +//! [post]: https://matklad.github.io/2021/02/27/delete-cargo-integration-tests.html + +use std::{pin::Pin, time::Duration}; + +use futures::Future; +use trpl::{Either, Receiver, Sender}; + +/// This test is foundational for all the others, as they depend on `run`. +/// +/// If we mess this up, *all* the tests below will fail -- so by the same token, +/// if all the tests below are failing, this one probably is too; fix it and the +/// others will likely start working again. +#[test] +fn re_exported_run_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { "Hello" }); + assert_eq!(val, "Hello"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_spawn_works() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let handle_a = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Hello" }); + let handle_b = trpl::spawn_task(async { "Goodbye" }); + vec![handle_a.await.unwrap(), handle_b.await.unwrap()] + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec!["Hello", "Goodbye"]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_sleep_works() { + let val = trpl::run(async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_micros(1)).await; + "Done!" + }); + assert_eq!(val, "Done!"); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_channel_apis_work() { + trpl::run(async { + // Explicitly naming the type to confirm the re-exports are aligned. + let (tx, mut rx): (Sender<&str>, Receiver<&str>) = trpl::channel(); + + tx.send("Hello").unwrap(); + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + tx.send("Goodbye").unwrap(); + drop(tx); + + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Hello")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, Some("Goodbye")); + assert_eq!(rx.recv().await, None); + }); +} + +mod re_exported_join_apis_work { + use super::*; + + #[test] + fn join_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + trpl::join(a, b).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2)); + } + + #[test] + fn join3_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { 2 }; + let c = async { 3 }; + + trpl::join3(a, b, c).await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, 2, 3)); + } + + #[test] + fn join_all_fn() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { format!("{}", 1) }; + + let b = async { "Hello".to_string() }; + + let outer = String::from("World"); + let c = async move { outer.to_string() }; + + let futures: Vec>>> = + vec![Box::pin(a), Box::pin(b), Box::pin(c)]; + + trpl::join_all(futures).await + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![ + String::from("1"), + String::from("Hello"), + String::from("World") + ] + ); + } + + #[test] + fn join_macro() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + let a = async { 1 }; + let b = async { "Hello" }; + + let outer = vec![String::from("World")]; + let c = async move { outer }; + + trpl::join!(a, b, c) + }); + + assert_eq!(result, (1, "Hello", vec![String::from("World")])); + } +} + +#[test] +fn race() { + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Slow; + + #[derive(Debug, PartialEq)] + struct Fast; + + let val = trpl::run(async { + let slow = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await; + Slow + }; + + let fast = async { + trpl::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1)).await; + Fast + }; + + trpl::race(slow, fast).await + }); + + assert!(matches!(val, Either::Right(Fast))); +} + +#[test] +fn yield_now() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::yield_now().await; + "done" + }); + + assert_eq!(result, "done"); +} + +#[test] +fn read_to_string() { + let result = trpl::run(async { + trpl::read_to_string("tests/integration/to-read.txt") + .await + .unwrap() + }); + + assert_eq!(result, String::from("This is some text!\n")); +} + +#[test] +fn stream_iter() { + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result = trpl::run(async { + let ns = vec![1, 2, 3]; + let mut stream = trpl::stream_from_iter(ns); + let mut result = vec![]; + while let Some(n) = stream.next().await { + result.push(format!("{n}")); + } + result + }); + + assert_eq!( + result, + vec![String::from("1"), String::from("2"), String::from("3")] + ) +} + +#[test] +fn receiver_stream() { + use trpl::ReceiverStream; + use trpl::StreamExt; + + let result: Vec = trpl::run(async { + println!("startup"); + let (tx, rx) = trpl::channel(); + let rx_stream = ReceiverStream::new(rx); + println!("sending 123"); + tx.send(123).unwrap(); + drop(tx); // So the receiver channel closes! + + rx_stream.collect().await + }); + + assert_eq!(result, vec![123]); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_interval_stream_works() { + use trpl::{IntervalStream, StreamExt}; + + trpl::run(async { + let mut interval_stream = + IntervalStream::new(trpl::interval(Duration::from_millis(1))) + .take(1); + + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_some()); + assert!(interval_stream.next().await.is_none()); + }); +} + +#[test] +fn re_exported_html() { + use trpl::Html; + + let doc = Html::parse( + "

Hello!

", + ); + let p = doc.select_first("p").map(|el| el.inner_html()); + assert_eq!(p, Some(String::from("Hello!"))); +} diff --git a/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..2af04f5bdf --- /dev/null +++ b/packages/trpl/tests/integration/to-read.txt @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +This is some text! diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 46bec2692f..b29dc2393c 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html). diff --git a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md index 6bd221fa3c..e315b35274 100644 --- a/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md +++ b/second-edition/src/ch18-00-patterns.md @@ -3,8 +3,8 @@ The second edition of the book is no longer distributed with Rust's documentation. If you came here via a link or web search, you may want to check out [the current -version of the book](../ch18-00-patterns.html) instead. +version of the book](../ch19-00-patterns.html) instead. If you have an internet connection, you can [find a copy distributed with Rust -1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). \ No newline at end of file +1.30](https://doc.rust-lang.org/1.30.0/book/second-edition/ch18-00-patterns.html). diff --git a/src/SUMMARY.md b/src/SUMMARY.md index b4b58afdee..40f5c22424 100644 --- a/src/SUMMARY.md +++ b/src/SUMMARY.md @@ -101,29 +101,37 @@ - [Shared-State Concurrency](ch16-03-shared-state.md) - [Extensible Concurrency with the `Sync` and `Send` Traits](ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md) -- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch17-00-oop.md) - - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch17-01-what-is-oo.md) - - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch17-02-trait-objects.md) - - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md) +- [Async and Await](ch17-00-async-await.md) + - [Futures and the Async Syntax](ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md) + - [Concurrency With Async](ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md) + - [Working With Any Number of Futures](ch17-03-more-futures.md) + - [Streams](ch17-04-streams.md) + - [Digging Into the Traits for Async](ch17-05-traits-for-async.md) + - [Futures, Tasks, and Threads](ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md) + +- [Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust](ch18-00-oop.md) + - [Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages](ch18-01-what-is-oo.md) + - [Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types](ch18-02-trait-objects.md) + - [Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern](ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md) ## Advanced Topics -- [Patterns and Matching](ch18-00-patterns.md) - - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) - - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch18-02-refutability.md) - - [Pattern Syntax](ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md) - -- [Advanced Features](ch19-00-advanced-features.md) - - [Unsafe Rust](ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md) - - [Advanced Traits](ch19-03-advanced-traits.md) - - [Advanced Types](ch19-04-advanced-types.md) - - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) - - [Macros](ch19-06-macros.md) - -- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) - - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch20-01-single-threaded.md) - - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch20-02-multithreaded.md) - - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) +- [Patterns and Matching](ch19-00-patterns.md) + - [All the Places Patterns Can Be Used](ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md) + - [Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match](ch19-02-refutability.md) + - [Pattern Syntax](ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md) + +- [Advanced Features](ch20-00-advanced-features.md) + - [Unsafe Rust](ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md) + - [Advanced Traits](ch20-03-advanced-traits.md) + - [Advanced Types](ch20-04-advanced-types.md) + - [Advanced Functions and Closures](ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md) + - [Macros](ch20-06-macros.md) + +- [Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server](ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md) + - [Building a Single-Threaded Web Server](ch21-01-single-threaded.md) + - [Turning Our Single-Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server](ch21-02-multithreaded.md) + - [Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup](ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md) - [Appendix](appendix-00.md) - [A - Keywords](appendix-01-keywords.md) diff --git a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md index 8b9b3d3584..d3951f9e5f 100644 --- a/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md +++ b/src/appendix-03-derivable-traits.md @@ -184,4 +184,4 @@ ch05-01-defining-structs.html#creating-instances-from-other-instances-with-struc ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#stack-only-data-copy [ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone]: ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html#ways-variables-and-data-interact-clone -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md index d25e55b18c..f806021687 100644 --- a/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md +++ b/src/ch05-03-method-syntax.md @@ -250,6 +250,6 @@ But structs aren’t the only way you can create custom types: let’s turn to Rust’s enum feature to add another tool to your toolbox. [enums]: ch06-00-enums.html -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.md +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.md [public]: ch07-03-paths-for-referring-to-an-item-in-the-module-tree.html#exposing-paths-with-the-pub-keyword [modules]: ch07-02-defining-modules-to-control-scope-and-privacy.html diff --git a/src/ch06-02-match.md b/src/ch06-02-match.md index 6a510df402..eec1ac4a89 100644 --- a/src/ch06-02-match.md +++ b/src/ch06-02-match.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ Rust has an extremely powerful control flow construct called `match` that allows you to compare a value against a series of patterns and then execute code based on which pattern matches. Patterns can be made up of literal values, variable names, wildcards, and many other things; [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns +18][ch19-00-patterns] covers all the different kinds of patterns and what they do. The power of `match` comes from the expressiveness of the patterns and the fact that the compiler confirms that all possible cases are handled. @@ -246,9 +246,10 @@ that doesn’t match a pattern in an earlier arm, and we don’t want to run any code in this case. There’s more about patterns and matching that we’ll cover in [Chapter -18][ch18-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the +19][ch19-00-patterns]. For now, we’re going to move on to the `if let` syntax, which can be useful in situations where the `match` expression is a bit wordy. [tuples]: ch03-02-data-types.html#the-tuple-type -[ch18-00-patterns]: ch18-00-patterns.html + +[ch19-00-patterns]: ch19-00-patterns.html diff --git a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md index 35bcd11474..78a87c7392 100644 --- a/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md +++ b/src/ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.md @@ -533,5 +533,5 @@ let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in whic cases. [handle_failure]: ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html#handling-potential-failure-with-result -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [termination]: ../std/process/trait.Termination.html diff --git a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md index 40f93d67ce..138a783d00 100644 --- a/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md +++ b/src/ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.md @@ -219,4 +219,4 @@ Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you can use them in your code. -[encoding]: ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types +[encoding]: ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.html#encoding-states-and-behavior-as-types diff --git a/src/ch10-02-traits.md b/src/ch10-02-traits.md index 53e9b8115c..855ee1fc4b 100644 --- a/src/ch10-02-traits.md +++ b/src/ch10-02-traits.md @@ -385,5 +385,5 @@ that checks for behavior at runtime because we’ve already checked at compile time. Doing so improves performance without having to give up the flexibility of generics. -[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types [methods]: ch05-03-method-syntax.html#defining-methods diff --git a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md index 79e84c943e..f40edcbafe 100644 --- a/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md +++ b/src/ch12-00-an-io-project.md @@ -45,4 +45,4 @@ cover in detail. [ch10]: ch10-00-generics.html [ch11]: ch11-00-testing.html [ch13]: ch13-00-functional-features.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch17]: ch18-00-oop.html diff --git a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md index 8c6d2c736a..64fe188b52 100644 --- a/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md +++ b/src/ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.md @@ -490,5 +490,5 @@ write some tests! [ch9-custom-types]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#creating-custom-types-for-validation [ch9-error-guidelines]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#guidelines-for-error-handling [ch9-result]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html -[ch17]: ch17-00-oop.html +[ch17]: ch18-00-oop.html [ch9-question-mark]: ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html#a-shortcut-for-propagating-errors-the--operator diff --git a/src/ch15-01-box.md b/src/ch15-01-box.md index 53e829a4c3..1878f6f195 100644 --- a/src/ch15-01-box.md +++ b/src/ch15-01-box.md @@ -252,4 +252,4 @@ even more important to the functionality provided by the other smart pointer types we’ll discuss in the rest of this chapter. Let’s explore these two traits in more detail. -[trait-objects]: ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[trait-objects]: ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/src/ch16-01-threads.md b/src/ch16-01-threads.md index cfdd0c7066..f3cdbff907 100644 --- a/src/ch16-01-threads.md +++ b/src/ch16-01-threads.md @@ -26,11 +26,12 @@ a code structure that is different from that in programs running in a single thread. Programming languages implement threads in a few different ways, and many -operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new -threads. The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, -whereby a program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. -There are crates that implement other models of threading that make different -tradeoffs to the 1:1 model. +operating systems provide an API the language can call for creating new threads. +The Rust standard library uses a *1:1* model of thread implementation, whereby a +program uses one operating system thread per one language thread. There are +crates that implement other models of threading that make different tradeoffs to +the 1:1 model. (Rust’s async system, which we will see in the next chapter, +provides another approach to concurrency as well.) ### Creating a New Thread with `spawn` diff --git a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md index 4586b8d2c4..ede5c66856 100644 --- a/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md +++ b/src/ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.md @@ -62,9 +62,10 @@ uphold them. ## Summary -This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in -Chapter 20 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation -than the smaller examples discussed here. +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the whole next +chapter focuses on async programming, and the project in Chapter 20 will use the +concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation than the smaller examples +discussed here. As mentioned earlier, because very little of how Rust handles concurrency is part of the language, many concurrency solutions are implemented as crates. @@ -81,10 +82,6 @@ run on multiple threads without the kinds of hard-to-track-down bugs common in other languages. Concurrent programming is no longer a concept to be afraid of: go forth and make your programs concurrent, fearlessly! -Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions -as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms -relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. - [sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads]: ch16-03-shared-state.html#sharing-a-mutext-between-multiple-threads [nomicon]: ../nomicon/index.html diff --git a/src/ch17-00-async-await.md b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..1749cc17a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-00-async-await.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +## Async and Await + +Many operations we ask the computer to do can take a while to finish. For +example, if you used a video editor to create a video of a family celebration, +exporting it could take anywhere from minutes to hours. Similarly, downloading a +video shared by someone in your family might take a long time. It would be nice +if we could do something else while we are waiting for those long-running +processes to complete. + +The video export will use as much CPU and GPU power as it can. If you only had +one CPU core, and your operating system never paused that export until it +completed, you could not do anything else on your computer while it was running. +That would be a pretty frustrating experience, though. Instead, your computer’s +operating system can—and does!—invisibly interrupt the export often enough to +let you get other work done along the way. + +The file download is different. It does not take up very much CPU time. Instead, +the CPU needs to wait on data to arrive from the network. While you can start +reading the data once some of it is present, it might take a while for the rest +to show up. Even once the data is all present, a video can be quite large, so it +might take some time to load it all. Maybe it only takes a second or two—but +that is a very long time for a modern processor, which can do billions of +operations every second. It would be nice to be able to put the CPU to use for +other work while waiting for the network call to finish—so, again, your +operating system will invisibly interrupt your program so other things can +happen while the network operation is still ongoing. + +> Note: The video export is the kind of operation which is often described as +> “CPU-bound” or “compute-bound”. It is limited by the speed of the computer’s +> ability to process data within the *CPU* or *GPU*, and how much of that speed +> it can use. The video download is the kind of operation which is often +> described as “IO-bound,” because it is limited by the speed of the computer’s +> *input and output*. It can only go as fast as the data can be sent across the +> network. + +In both of these examples, the operating system’s invisible interrupts provide a +form of concurrency. That concurrency only happens at the level of a whole +program, though: the operating system interrupts one program to let other +programs get work done. In many cases, since we understand our programs at a +much more granular level than the operating system does, we can spot lots of +opportunities for concurrency that the operating system cannot see. + +For example, if we are building a tool to manage file downloads, we should be +able to write our program in such a way that starting one download does not lock +up the UI, and users should be able to start multiple downloads at the same +time. Many operating system APIs for interacting with the network are +*blocking*, though. That is, these APIs block the program’s progress until the +data that they are processing is completely ready. + +> Note: This is how *most* function calls work, if you think about it! However, +> we normally reserve the term “blocking” for function calls which interact with +> files, the network, or other resources on the computer, because those are the +> places where an individual program would benefit from the operation being +> *non*-blocking. + +We could avoid blocking our main thread by spawning a dedicated thread to +download each file. However, we would eventually find that the overhead of those +threads was a problem. It would also be nicer if the call were not blocking in +the first place. Last but not least, it would be better if we could write in the +same direct style we use in blocking code. Something like this: + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +let data = fetch_data_from(url).await; +println!("{data}"); +``` + +That is exactly what Rust’s async abstraction gives us. Before we see how this +works in practice, though, we need to take a short detour into the differences +between parallelism and concurrency. + +### Parallelism and Concurrency + +In the previous chapter we treated parallelism and concurrency as mostly +interchangeable. Now we need to distinguish between them more precisely, because +the differences will show up as we start working. + +Consider the different ways a team could split up work on a software project. We +could assign a single individual multiple tasks, or we could assign one task per +team member, or we could do a mix of both approaches. + +When an individual works on several different tasks before any of them is +complete, this is *concurrency*. Maybe you have two different projects checked +out on your computer, and when you get bored or stuck on one project, you switch +to the other. You are just one person, so you cannot make progress on both tasks +tasks at the exact same time—but you can multi-task, making progress on multiple +tasks by switching between them. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-1: A concurrent workflow, switching between Task A and Task B
+ +
+ +When you agree to split up a group of tasks between the people on the team, with +each person taking one task and working on it alone, this is *parallelism*. Each +person on the team can make progress at the exact same time. + +
+ +Concurrent work flow + +
Figure 17-2: A parallel workflow, where work happens on Task A and Task B independently
+ +
+ +With both of these situations, you might have to coordinate between different +tasks. Maybe you *thought* the task that one person was working on was totally +independent from everyone else’s work, but it actually needs something finished +by another person on the team. Some of the work could be done in parallel, but +some of it was actually *serial*: it could only happen in a series, one thing +after the other. Likewise, you might realize that one of your own tasks depends +on another of your tasks. Now your concurrent work has also become serial. + +Parallelism and concurrency can intersect with each other, too. If you learn +that a colleague is stuck until you finish one of your tasks, you will probably +focus all your efforts on that task to “unblock” your colleague. You and your +coworker are no longer able to work in parallel, and you are also no longer able +to work concurrently on your own tasks. + +The same basic dynamics come into play with software and hardware. On a machine +with a single CPU core, the CPU can only do one operation at a time, but it can +still work concurrently. Using tools like threads, processes, and async, the +computer can pause one activity and switch to others before eventually cycling +back to that first activity again. On a machine with multiple CPU cores, it can +also do work in parallel. One core can be doing one thing while another core +does something completely unrelated, and those actually happen at the same +time. + +When working with async in Rust, we are always dealing with concurrency. +Depending on the hardware, the operating system, and the async runtime we are +using—more on async runtimes shortly!—that concurrency may also use parallelism +under the hood. + +Now, let’s dive into how async programming in Rust actually works! In the rest +of this chapter, we will: + +* see how to use Rust’s `async` and `.await` syntax +* explore how to use the async model to solve some of the same challenges we + looked at in Chapter 16 +* look at how multithreading and async provide complementary solutions, which + you can even use together in many cases diff --git a/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a072263732 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.md @@ -0,0 +1,372 @@ +## Futures and the Async Syntax + +The key elements of asynchronous programming in Rust are *futures* and Rust’s +`async` and `await` keywords. + +A *future* is a value which may not be ready now, but will become ready at some +point in the future. (This same concept shows up in many languages, sometimes +under other names like “task” or “promise”.) Rust provides a `Future` trait as a +building block so different async operations can be implemented with different +data structures, but with a common interface. In Rust, we say that types which +implement the `Future` trait are futures. Each type which implements `Future` +holds its own information about the progress that has been made and what "ready" +means. + +The `async` keyword can be applied to blocks and functions to specify that they +can be interrupted and resumed. Within an async block or async function, you can +use the `await` keyword to wait for a future to become ready, called *awaiting a +future*. Each place you await a future within an async block or function is a +place that async block or function may get paused and resumed. + +Some other languages also use `async` and `await` keywords for async +programming. If you are familiar with those languages, you may notice some +significant differences in how Rust does things, including how it handles the +syntax. That is for good reason, as we will see! + +Most of the time when writing async Rust, we use the `async` and `await` +keywords. Rust compiles them into equivalent code using the `Future` trait, much +like it compiles `for` loops into equivalent code using the `Iterator` trait. +Because Rust provides the `Future` trait, though, you can also implement it for +your own data types when you need to. Many of the functions we will see +throughout this chapter return types with their own implementations of `Future`. +We will return to the definition of the trait at the end of the chapter and dig +into more of how it works, but this is enough detail to keep us moving forward. + +That may all feel a bit abstract. Let’s write our first async program: a little +web scraper. We will pass in two URLs from the command line, fetch both of them +concurrently, and return the result of whichever one finishes first. This +example will have a fair bit of new syntax, but don’t worry. We will explain +everything you need to know as we go. + +### Our First Async Program + +To keep this chapter focused on learning async, rather than juggling parts of +the ecosystem, we have created the `trpl` crate (`trpl` is short for “The Rust +Programming Language”). It re-exports all the types, traits, and functions you +will need, primarily from the [`futures`][futures-crate] and [`tokio`][tokio] +crates. + +- The `futures` crate is an official home for Rust experimentation for async + code, and is actually where the `Future` type was originally designed. + +- Tokio is the most widely used async runtime in Rust today, especially (but + not only!) for web applications. There are other great runtimes out there, + and they may be more suitable for your purposes. We use Tokio under the hood + for `trpl` because it is good and widely used. + +In some cases, `trpl` also renames or wraps the original APIs to let us stay +focused on the details relevant to chapter. If you want to understand what the +crate does, we encourage you to check out [its source code][crate-source]. You +will be able to see what crate each re-export comes from, and we have left +extensive comments explaining what the crate does. + +Go ahead and add the `trpl` crate to your `hello-async` project: + +```console +$ cargo add trpl +``` + +Now we can use the various pieces provided by `trpl` to write our first async +program. We will build a little command line tool which fetches two web pages, +pulls the `` element from each, and prints out the title of whichever +finishes that whole process first. + +<Listing number="17-1" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Defining an async function to get the title element from an HTML page"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-01/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-1, we define a function named `page_title`, and we mark it with +the `async` keyword. Then we use the `trpl::get` function to fetch whatever URL +is passed in, and, and we await the response by using the `await` keyword. Then +we get the text of the response by calling its `text` method and once again +awaiting it with the `await` keyword. Both of these steps are asynchronous. For +`get`, we need to wait for the server to send back the first part of its +response, which will include HTTP headers, cookies, and so on. That part of the +response can be delivered separately from the body of the request. Especially if +the body is very large, it can take some time for it all to arrive. Thus, we +have to wait for the *entirety* of the response to arrive, so the `text` method +is also async. + +We have to explicitly await both of these futures, because futures in Rust are +*lazy*: they don’t do anything until you ask them to with `await`. (In fact, +Rust will show a compiler warning if you do not use a future.) This should +remind you of our discussion of iterators [back in Chapter 13][iterators-lazy]. +Iterators do nothing unless you call their `next` method—whether directly, or +using `for` loops or methods like `map` which use `next` under the hood. With +futures, the same basic idea applies: they do nothing unless you explicitly ask +them to. This laziness allows Rust to avoid running async code until it is +actually needed. + +> Note: This is different from the behavior we saw when using `thread::spawn` in +> the previous chapter, where the closure we passed to another thread started +> running immediately. It is also different from how many other languages +> approach async! But it is important for Rust. We will see why that is later. + +Once we have `response_text`, we can then parse it into an instance of the +`Html` type using `Html::parse`. Instead of a raw string, we now have a data +type we can use to work with the HTML as a richer data structure. In particular, +we can use the `select_first` method to find the first instance of a given CSS +selector. By passing the string `"title"`, we will get the first `<title>` +element in the document, if there is one. Since there may not be any matching +element, `select_first` returns an `Option<ElementRef>`. Finally, we use the +`Option::map` method, which lets us work with the item in the `Option` if it is +present, and do nothing if it is not. (We could also use a `match` expression +here, but `map` is more idiomatic.) In the body of the function we supply to +`map`, we call `inner_html` on the `title_element` to get its content, which is +a `String`. When all is said and done, we have an `Option<String>`. + +Notice that Rust’s `await` keyword goes after the expression you are awaiting, +not before it. That is, it is a *postfix keyword*. This may be different from +what you might be used to if you have used async in other languages. Rust chose +this because it makes chains of methods much nicer to work with. As a result, we +can change the body of `page_url_for` to chain the `trpl::get` and `text` +function calls together with `await` between them, as shown in Listing 17-2: + +<Listing number="17-2" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Chaining with the `await` keyword"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-02/src/main.rs:chaining}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have successfully written our first async function! Before we add +some code in `main` to call it, let’s talk a little more about what we have +written and what it means. + +When Rust sees a block marked with the `async` keyword, it compiles it into a +unique, anonymous data type which implements the `Future` trait. When Rust +sees a function marked with `async`, it compiles it into a non-async function +whose body is an async block. Thus, an async function’s return type is the type +of the anonymous data type the compiler creates for that async block. + +Thus, writing `async fn` is equivalent to writing a function which returns a +*future* of the return type. When the compiler sees a function like `async fn +page_title` in Listing 17-1, it is equivalent to a non-async function defined +like this: + +```rust +# extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +use std::future::Future; +use trpl::Html; + +fn page_title(url: &str) -> impl Future<Output = Option<String>> + '_ { + async move { + let text = trpl::get(url).await.text().await; + Html::parse(&text) + .select_first("title") + .map(|title| title.inner_html()) + } +} +``` + +Let’s walk through each part of the transformed version: + +* It uses the `impl Trait` syntax we discussed back in the [“Traits as + Parameters”][impl-trait] section in Chapter 10. +* The returned trait is a `Future`, with an associated type of `Output`. Notice + that the `Output` type is `Option<String>`, which is the same as the the + original return type from the `async fn` version of `page_title`. +* All of the code called in the body of the original function is wrapped in an + `async move` block. Remember that blocks are expressions. This whole block is + the expression returned from the function. +* This async block produces a value with the type `Option<String>`, as described + above. That value matches the `Output` type in the return type. This is just + like other blocks you have seen. +* The new function body is an `async move` block because of how it uses the + `name` argument. (We will talk about `async` vs. `async move` much more later + in the chapter.) +* The new version of the function has a kind of lifetime we have not seen before + in the output type: `'_`. Because the function returns a `Future` which refers + to a reference—in this case, the reference from the `url` parameter—we need to + tell Rust that we mean for that reference to be included. We do not have to + name the lifetime here, because Rust is smart enough to know there is only one + reference which could be involved, but we *do* have to be explicit that the + resulting `Future` is bound by that lifetime. + +Now we can call `page_title` in `main`. To start, we will just get the title for +a single page. In Listing 17-3, we follow the same pattern we used for getting +command line arguments back in Chapter 12. Then we pass the first URL +`page_title`, and await the result. Since the value produced by the future is an +`Option<String>`, we use a `match` expression to print different messages to +account for whether the page had a `<title>`. + +<Listing number="17-3" file-name="src/main.rs" caption="Calling the `page_title` function from `main` with a user-supplied argument"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this does not compile. The only place we can use the `await` +keyword is in async functions or blocks, so Rust will not let us mark `main` as +`async`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-03 +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + +```text +error[E0752]: `main` function is not allowed to be `async` + --> src/main.rs:6:1 + | +6 | async fn main() { + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ `main` function is not allowed to be `async` +``` + +The reason is that async code needs a *runtime*: a Rust crate which manages the +details of executing asynchronous code. A program's `main` function can +initialize a runtime, but it is not a runtime itself. (We will see more about +why this is a bit later.) Every async program in Rust has at least one place +where it sets up a runtime and executes the futures. + +Most languages which support async bundle a runtime with the language. Rust does +not. Instead, there are many different async runtimes available, each of which +makes different tradeoffs suitable to the use case they target. For example, a +high-throughput web server with many CPU cores and a large amount of RAM has +very different different needs than a microcontroller with a single core, a +small amount of RAM, and no ability to do heap allocations. The crates which +provide those runtimes also often supply async versions of common functionality +like file or network I/O. + +Here, and throughout the rest of this chapter, we will use the `run` function +from the `trpl` crate, which takes a future as an argument and runs it to +completion. Behind the scenes, calling `run` sets up a runtime to use to run the +future passed in. Once the future completes, `run` returns whatever value the +future produced. + +We could pass the future returned by `page_title` directly to `run`. Once it +completed, we would be able to match on the resulting `Option<String>`, the way +we tried to do in Listing 17-3. However, for most of the examples in the chapter +(and most async code in the real world!), we will be doing more than just one +async function call, so instead we will pass an `async` block and explicitly +await the result of calling `page_title`, as in Listing 17-4. + +<Listing number="17-4" caption="Awaiting an async block with `trpl::run`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/src/main.rs:run}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we get the behavior we might have expected initially: + +```console +{{#include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-04/output.txt}} +``` + +Phew: we finally have some working async code! This now compiles, and we can run +it. Pick a couple URLs and run the command line tool. You may discover that some +sites are reliably faster than others, while in other cases which site “wins” +varies from run to run. Let’s briefly turn our attention back to how futures +work. + +Each *await point*—that is, every place where the code uses the `await` +keyword—represents a place where control gets handed back to the runtime. To +make that work, Rust needs to keep track of the state involved in the async +block, so that the runtime can kick off some other work and then come back when +it is ready to try advancing this one again. This is an invisible state machine, +as if you wrote something like this: + +```rust +# extern crate trpl; // required for mdbook test +enum PageTitleFuture<'a> { + GetAwaitPoint { + url: &'a str, + }, + TextAwaitPoint { + response: trpl::Response, + }, +} +``` + +Writing that out by hand would be tedious and error-prone, especially when +making changes to code later. Instead, the Rust compiler creates and manages the +state machine data structures for async code automatically. If you’re wondering: +yep, the normal borrowing and ownership rules around data structures all apply. +Happily, the compiler also handles checking those for us, and has good error +messages. We will work through a few of those later in the chapter! + +Ultimately, something has to execute that state machine. That something is a +runtime. (This is why you may sometimes come across references to *executors* +when looking into runtimes: an executor is the part of a runtime responsible for +executing the async code.) + +Now we can understand why the compiler stopped us from making `main` itself an +async function back in Listing 17-3. If `main` were an async function, something +else would need to manage the state machine for whatever future `main` returned, +but main is the starting point for the program! Instead, we use the `trpl::run` +function, which sets up a runtime and runs the future returned by `page_title` +until it returns `Ready`. + +> Note: some runtimes provide macros to make it so you *can* write an async main +> function. Those macros rewrite `async fn main() { ... }` to be a normal `fn +> main` which does the same thing we did by hand in Listing 17-5: call a +> function which runs a future to completion the way `trpl::run` does. + +Let’s put these pieces together and see how we can write concurrent code, by +calling `page_title_for` with two different URLs passed in from the command line +and racing it. + +<Listing number="17-5" caption="" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +<!-- should_panic,noplayground because mdbook does not pass args --> + +```rust,should_panic,noplayground +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-05/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-5, we begin by calling `page_title` with both of the user-supplied +URLs. We save the futures produced by calling `page_title` as `title_fut_1` and +`title_fut_2`. Remember, these don’t do anything yet, because futures are lazy, +and we have not yet awaited them. Then we pass the futures `trpl::race`, which +returns a value to indicate which of the futures passed to it finishes first. + +Either future can legitimately “win,” so it does not make sense to return a +`Result`. Instead, `race` returns a type we have not seen before, +`trpl::Either`. The `Either` type is somewhat like a `Result`, in that it has +two cases. Unlike `Result`, though, there is no notion of success or failure +baked into `Either`. Instead, it uses `Left` and `Right` to indicate “one or the +other”. + +```rust +enum Either<A, B> { + Left(A), + Right(B) +} +``` + +The `race` function returns `Left` if the first argument finishes first, with +that future’s output, and `Right` with the second future argument’s output if +*that* one finishes first. This matches the order the arguments appear when +calling the function: the first argument is to the left of the second argument. + +We also update `page_title_for` to return the same URL passed in. That way, if +the page which returns first does not have a `<title>` we can resolve, we can +still print a meaningful message. With that information available, we wrap up by +updating our `println!` output to indicate both which URL finished first and +what the `<title>` was for the web page at that URL, if any. + +You have built a small working web scraper now, which we could extend in a bunch +of different directions. More importantly, you have learned the basics of +working with futures, so we can now dig into even more of the things we can *do* +with async. + +[impl-trait]: ch10-02-traits.html#traits-as-parameters +[iterators-lazy]: ch13-02-iterators.html +<!-- TODO: map source link version to version of Rust? --> +[crate-source]: https://github.com/rust-lang/book/tree/main/packages/trpl +[futures-crate]: https://crates.io/crates/futures +[tokio]: https://tokio.rs diff --git a/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a302b5aa2e --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,385 @@ +## Concurrency With Async + +In this section, we will apply async to some of the same concurrency challenges +we tackled with threads in chapter 16. Since we already talked about a lot of +the key ideas there, in this section we will focus on what is different between +threads and futures. + +In many cases, the APIs for working with concurrency using async are very +similar to those for using threads. In other cases, they end up being shaped +quite differently. Even when the APIs *look* similar between threads and async, +they often have different behavior—and they nearly always have different +performance characteristics. + +### Counting + +The first task we tackled in Chapter 16 was counting up on two separate threads. +Let’s do the same using async. The `trpl` crate supplies a `spawn_task` function +which looks very similar to the `thread::spawn` API, and a `sleep` function +which is an async version of the `thread::sleep` API. We can use these together +to implement the same counting example as with threads, in Listing 17-6. + +<Listing number="17-6" caption="Using `spawn_task` to count with two" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-06/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +As our starting point, we set up our `main` function with `trpl::run`, so +that our top-level function can be async. + +> Note: From this point forward in the chapter, every example will include this +> exact same wrapping code with `trpl::run` in `main`, so we will often skip it +> just like we do with `main`. Don’t forget to include it in your code! + +Then we write two loops within that block, each with a `trpl::sleep` call in it, +which waits for half a second (500 milliseconds) before sending the next +message. We put one loop in the body of a `trpl::spawn_task` and the other in a +top-level `for` loop. We also add an `.await` after the `sleep` calls. + +This does something similar to the thread-based implementation—including the +fact that you may see the messages appear in a different order in your own +terminal when you run it. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +``` + +This version stops as soon as the for loop in the body of the main async block +finishes, because the task spawned by `spawn_task` is shut down when the main +function ends. If you want to run all the way to the completion of the task, you +will need to use a join handle to wait for the first task to complete. With +threads, we used the `join` method to “block” until the thread was done running. +In Listing 17-7, we can use `await` to do the same thing, because the task +handle itself is a future. Its `Output` type is a `Result`, so we also unwrap it +after awaiting it. + +<Listing number="17-7" caption="Using `.await` with a join handle to run a task to completion" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-07/src/main.rs:handle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This updated version runs till *both* loops finish. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +So far, it looks like async and threads give us the same basic outcomes, just +with different syntax: using `.await` instead of calling `join` on the join +handle, and awaiting the `sleep` calls. + +The bigger difference is that we did not need to spawn another operating system +thread to do this. In fact, we do not even need to spawn a task here. Because +async blocks compile to anonymous futures, we can put each loop in an async +block and have the runtime run them both to completion using the `trpl::join` +function. + +In Chapter 16, we showed how to use the `join` method on the `JoinHandle` type +returned when you call `std::thread::spawn`. The `trpl::join` function is +similar, but for futures. When you give it two futures, it produces a single new +future whose output is a tuple with the output of each of the futures you passed +in once *both* complete. Thus, in Listing 17-8, we use `trpl::join` to wait for +both `fut1` and `fut2` to finish. We do *not* await `fut1` and `fut2`, but +instead the new future produced by `trpl::join`. We ignore the output, because +it is just a tuple with two unit values in it. + +<Listing number="17-8" caption="Using `trpl::join` to await two anonymous futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-08/src/main.rs:join}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this, we see both futures run to completion: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +hi number 1 from the first task! +hi number 1 from the second task! +hi number 2 from the first task! +hi number 2 from the second task! +hi number 3 from the first task! +hi number 3 from the second task! +hi number 4 from the first task! +hi number 4 from the second task! +hi number 5 from the first task! +hi number 6 from the first task! +hi number 7 from the first task! +hi number 8 from the first task! +hi number 9 from the first task! +``` + +Here, you will see the exact same order every time, which is very different from +what we saw with threads. That is because the `trpl::join` function is *fair*, +meaning it checks each future equally often, alternating between them, and never +lets one race ahead if the other is ready. With threads, the operating system +decides which thread to check and how long to let it run. With async Rust, the +runtime decides which task to check. (In practice, the details get complicated +because an async runtime might use operating system threads under the hood as +part of how it manages concurrency, so guaranteeing fairness can be more work +for a runtime—but it is still possible!) Runtimes do not have to guarantee +fairness for any given operation, and runtimes often offer different APIs to let +you choose whether you want fairness or not. + +Try some of these different variations on awaiting the futures and see what they +do: + +* Remove the async block from around either or both of the loops. +* Await each async block immediately after defining it. +* Wrap only the first loop in an async block, and await the resulting future + after the body of second loop. + +For an extra challenge, see if you can figure out what the output will be in +each case *before* running the code! + +### Message Passing + +Sharing data between futures will also be familiar: we will use message passing +again, but this with async versions of the types and functions. We will take a +slightly different path than we did in Chapter 16, to illustrate some of the key +differences between thread-based and futures-based concurrency. In Listing 17-9, +we will begin with just a single async block—*not* spawning a separate task like +we spawned a separate thread. + +<Listing number="17-9" caption="Creating an async channel and assigning the two halves to `tx` and `rx`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-09/src/main.rs:channel}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Here, we use `trpl::channel`, an async version of the multiple-producer, +single-consumer channel API we used with threads back in Chapter 16. The async +version of the API is only a little different from the thread-based version: it +uses a mutable rather than an immutable receiver `rx`, and its `recv` method +produces a future we need to await rather than producing the value directly. Now +we can send messages from the sender to the receiver. Notice that we do not have +to spawn a separate thread or even a task; we merely need to await the `rx.recv` +call. + +The synchronous `Receiver::recv` method in `std::mpsc::channel` blocks until +it receives a message. The `trpl::Receiver::recv` method does not, because it +is async. Instead of blocking, it hands control back to the runtime until either +a message is received or the send side of the channel closes. By contrast, we do +not await the `send` call, because it does not block. It does not need to, +because the channel we are sending it into is unbounded. + +> Note: Because all of this async code runs in an async block in a `trpl::run` +> call, everything within it can avoid blocking. However, the code *outside* it +> will block on the `run` function returning. That is the whole point of the +> `trpl::run` function: it lets you *choose* where to block on some set of async +> code, and thus where to transition between sync and async code. In most async +> runtimes, `run` is actually named `block_on` for exactly this reason. + +Notice two things about this example: First, the message will arrive right away! +Second, although we use a future here, there is no concurrency yet. Everything +in the listing happens in sequence, just as it would if there were no futures +involved. + +Let’s address the first part by sending a series of messages, and sleep in +between them, as shown in Listing 17-10: + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-10" caption="Sending and receiving multiple messages over the async channel and sleeping with an `.await` between each message" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-10/src/main.rs:many-messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In addition to sending the messages, we need to receive them. In this case, we +could do that manually, by just doing `rx.recv().await` four times, because we +know how many messages are coming in. In the real world, though, we will +generally be waiting on some *unknown* number of messages. In that case, we need +to keep waiting until we determine that there are no more messages. + +In Listing 16-10, we used a `for` loop to process all the items received from a +synchronous channel. However, Rust does not yet have a way to write a `for` loop +over an *asynchronous* series of items. Instead, we need to use a new kind of +loop we haven’t seen before, the `while let` conditional loop. A `while let` +loop is the loop version of the `if let` construct we saw back in Chapter 6. The +loop will continue executing as long as the pattern it specifies continues to +match the value. + +<!-- TODO: update text in ch. 19 to account for our having introduced this. --> + +The `rx.recv` call produces a `Future`, which we await. The runtime will pause +the `Future` until it is ready. Once a message arrives, the future will resolve +to `Some(message)`, as many times as a message arrives. When the channel closes, +regardless of whether *any* messages have arrived, the future will instead +resolve to `None` to indicate that there are no more values, and we should stop +polling—that is, stop awaiting. + +The `while let` loop pulls all of this together. If the result of calling +`rx.recv().await` is `Some(message)`, we get access to the message and we can +use it in the loop body, just like we could with `if let`. If the result is +`None`, the loop ends. Every time the loop completes, it hits the await point +again, so the runtime pauses it again until another message arrives. + +The code now successfully sends and receives all of the messages. Unfortunately, +there are still a couple problems. For one thing, the messages do not arrive at +half-second intervals. They arrive all at once, two seconds (2,000 milliseconds) +after we start the program. For another, this program also never exits! Instead, +it waits forever for new messages. You will need to shut it down using <span +class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. + +Let’s start by understanding why the messages all come in at once after the full +delay, rather than coming in with delays in between each one. Within a given +async block, the order that `.await` keywords appear in the code is also the +order they happen when running the program. + +There is only one async block in Listing 17-10, so everything in it runs +linearly. There is still no concurrency. All the `tx.send` calls happen, +interspersed with all of the `trpl::sleep` calls and their associated await +points. Only then does the `while let` loop get to go through any of the +`.await` points on the `recv` calls. + +To get the behavior we want, where the sleep delay happens between receiving +each message, we need to put the `tx` and `rx` operations in their own async +blocks. Then the runtime can execute each of them separately using `trpl::join`, +just like in the counting example. Once again, we await the result of calling +`trpl::join`, not the individual futures. If we awaited the individual futures +in sequence, we would just end up back in a sequential flow—exactly what we are +trying *not* to do. + +<!-- We cannot test this one because it never stops! --> + +<Listing number="17-11" caption="Separating `send` and `recv` into their own `async` blocks and awaiting the futures for those blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-11/src/main.rs:futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With the updated code in Listing 17-11, the messages get printed at +500-millisecond intervals, rather than all in a rush after two seconds. + +The program still never exits, though, because of the way `while let` loop +interacts with `trpl::join`: + +* The future returned from `trpl::join` only completes once *both* futures + passed to it have completed. +* The `tx` future completes once it finishes sleeping after sending the last + message in `vals`. +* The `rx` future will not complete until the `while let` loop ends. +* The `while let` loop will not end until awaiting `rx.recv` produces `None`. +* Awaiting `rx.recv` will only return `None` once the other end of the channel + is closed. +* The channel will only close if we call `rx.close` or when the sender side, + `tx`, is dropped. +* We do not call `rx.close` anywhere, and `tx` will not be dropped until the + outermost async block passed to `trpl::run` ends. +* The block cannot end because it is blocked on `trpl::join` completing, which + takes us back to the top of this list! + +We could manually close `rx` by calling `rx.close` somewhere, but that does not +make much sense. Stopping after handling some arbitrary number of messages would +make the program shut down, but we could miss messages. We need some other way +to make sure that `tx` gets dropped *before* the end of the function. + +Right now, the async block where we send the messages only borrows `tx`, but if +we could move `tx` into that async block, it would be dropped once that block +ends. In Chapter 13, we learned how to use the `move` keyword with closures, and +in Chapter 16, we saw that we often need to use move data into closures when +working with threads. The same basic dynamics apply to async blocks, so the +`move` keyword works with async blocks just like it does with closures. + +In Listing 17-12, we change the async block for sending messages from a plain +`async` block to an `async move` block. When we run *this* version of the code, +it shuts down gracefully after the last message is sent and received. + +<Listing number="17-12" caption="A working example of sending and receiving messages between futures which correctly shuts down when complete" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-12/src/main.rs:with-move}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This async channel is also a multiple-producer channel, so we can call `clone` +on `tx` if we want to send messages from multiple futures. In Listing 17-13, we +clone `tx`, creating `tx1` outside the first async block. We move `tx1` into +that block just as we did before with `tx`. Then, later, we move the original +`tx` into a *new* async block, where we send more messages on a slightly slower +delay. We happen to put this new async block after the async block for receiving +messages, but it could go before it just as well. They key is the order of the +futures are awaited in, not the order they are created in. + +Both of the async blocks for sending messages need to be `async move` blocks, so +that both `tx` and `tx1` get dropped when those blocks finish. Otherwise we will +end up back in the same infinite loop we started out in. Finally, we switch from +`trpl::join` to `trpl::join3` to handle the additional future. + +<Listing number="17-13" caption="Using multiple producers with async blocks" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-13/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now we see all the messages from both sending futures. Because the sending +futures use slightly different delays after sending, the messages are also +received at those different intervals. + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'the' +received 'messages' +received 'future' +received 'for' +received 'you' +``` + +This is a good start, but it limits us to just a handful of futures: two with +`join`, or three with `join3`. Let’s see how we might work with more futures. + +[streams]: ch17-05-streams.html diff --git a/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..35e919249f --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-03-more-futures.md @@ -0,0 +1,600 @@ +## Working With Any Number of Futures + +When we switched from using two futures to three in the previous section, we +also had to switch from using `join` to using `join3`. It would be annoying to +have to call a different function every time we changed the number of futures we +wanted to join. Happily, we have a macro form of `join` to which we can pass an +arbitrary number of arguments. It also handles awaiting the futures itself. +Thus, we could rewrite the code from Listing 17-13 to use `join!` instead of +`join3`, as in Listing 17-14: + +<Listing number="17-14" caption="Using `join!` to wait for multiple futures" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-14/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is definitely a nice improvement over needing to swap between `join` and +`join3` and `join4` and so on! However, even this macro form only works when we +know the number of futures ahead of time. In real-world Rust, though, pushing +futures into a collection and then waiting on some or all the futures in that +collection to complete is a common pattern. + +To check all the futures in some collection, we will need to iterate over and +join on *all* of them. The `trpl::join_all` function accepts any type which +implements the `Iterator` trait, which we learned about back in Chapter 13, so +it seems like just the ticket. Let’s try putting our futures in a vector, and +replace `join!` with `join_all`. + +<Listing number="17-15" caption="Storing anonymous futures in a vector and calling `join_all`"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-15/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this does not compile. Instead, we get this error: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/ +cargo build +copy just the compiler error +--> + + +```text +error[E0308]: mismatched types + --> src/main.rs:43:37 + | +8 | let tx1_fut = async move { + | _______________________- +9 | | let vals = vec![ +10 | | String::from("hi"), +11 | | String::from("from"), +... | +19 | | } +20 | | }; + | |_________- the expected `async` block +21 | +22 | let rx_fut = async { + | ______________________- +23 | | while let Some(value) = rx.recv().await { +24 | | println!("received '{value}'"); +25 | | } +26 | | }; + | |_________- the found `async` block +... +43 | let futures = vec![tx1_fut, rx_fut, tx_fut]; + | ^^^^^^ expected `async` block, found a different `async` block + | + = note: expected `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` + found `async` block `{async block@src/main.rs:22:22: 26:10}` + = note: no two async blocks, even if identical, have the same type + = help: consider pinning your async block and and casting it to a trait object +``` + +This might be surprising. After all, none of them returns anything, so each +block produces a `Future<Output = ()>`. However, `Future` is a trait, not a +concrete type. The concrete types are the individual data structures generated +by the compiler for async blocks. You cannot put two different hand-written +structs in a `Vec`, and the same thing applies to the different structs +generated by the compiler. + +To make this work, we need to use *trait objects*, just as we did in [“Returning +Errors from the run function”][dyn] in Chapter 12. (We will cover trait objects +in detail in Chapter 18.) Using trait objects lets us treat each of the +anonymous futures produced by these types as the same type, since all of them +implement the `Future` trait. + +> Note: In Chapter 8, we discussed another way to include multiple types in a +> `Vec`: using an enum to represent each of the different types which can +> appear in the vector. We cannot do that here, though. For one thing, we have +> no way to name the different types, because they are anonymous. For another, +> the reason we reached for a vector and `join_all` in the first place was to be +> able to work with a dynamic collection of futures where we do not know what +> they will all be until runtime. + +We start by wrapping each of the futures in the `vec!` in a `Box::new`, as shown +in Listing 17-16. + +<Listing number="17-16" caption="Trying to use `Box::new` to align the types of the futures in a `Vec`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-16/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Unfortunately, this still does not compile. In fact, we have the same basic +error we did before, but we get one for both the second and third `Box::new` +calls, and we also get new errors referring to the `Unpin` trait. We will come +back to the `Unpin` errors in a moment. First, let’s fix the type errors on the +`Box::new` calls, by explicitly providing the type of `futures` as a trait +object (Listing 17-17). + +<Listing number="17-17" caption="Fixing the rest of the type mismatch errors by using an explicit type declaration" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The type we had to write here is a little involved, so let’s walk through it: + +* The innermost type is the future itself. We note explicitly that the output of + the future is the unit type `()` by writing `Future<Output = ()>`. +* Then we annotate the trait with `dyn` to mark it as dynamic. +* The entire trait reference is wrapped in a `Box`. +* Finally, we state explicitly that `futures` is a `Vec` containing these items. + +That already made a big difference. Now when we run the compiler, we only have +the errors mentioning `Unpin`. Although there are three of them, notice that +each is very similar in its contents. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-17 +cargo build +copy *only* the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:24 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | -------------- ^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | | + | required by a bound introduced by this call + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `join_all` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:105:14 + | +102 | pub fn join_all<I>(iter: I) -> JoinAll<I::Item> + | -------- required by a bound in this function +... +105 | I::Item: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `join_all` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:9 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +That is a *lot* to digest, so let’s pull it apart. The first part of the message +tell us that the first async block (`src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10`) does not +implement the `Unpin` trait, and suggests using `pin!` or `Box::pin` to resolve +it. Later in the chapter, we will dig into a few more details about `Pin` and +`Unpin`. For the moment, though, we can just follow the compiler’s advice to get +unstuck! In Listing 17-18, we start by updating the type annotation for +`futures`, with a `Pin` wrapping each `Box`. Second, we use `Box::pin` to pin +the futures themselves. + +<Listing number="17-18" caption="Using `Pin` and `Box::pin` to make the `Vec` type check" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If we compile and run this, we finally get the output we hoped for: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +received 'hi' +received 'more' +received 'from' +received 'messages' +received 'the' +received 'for' +received 'future' +received 'you' +``` + +Phew! + +There is a bit more we can explore here. For one thing, using `Pin<Box<T>>` +comes with a small amount of extra overhead from putting these futures on the +heap with `Box`—and we are only doing that to get the types to line up. We don’t +actually *need* the heap allocation, after all: these futures are local to this +particular function. As noted above, `Pin` is itself a wrapper type, so we can +get the benefit of having a single type in the `Vec`—the original reason we +reached for `Box`—without doing a heap allocation. We can use `Pin` directly +with each future, using the `std::pin::pin` macro. + +However, we must still be explicit about the type of the pinned reference; +otherwise Rust will still not know to interpret these as dynamic trait objects, +which is what we need them to be in the `Vec`. We therefore `pin!` each future +when we define it, and define `futures` as a `Vec` containing pinned mutable +references to the dynamic `Future` type, as in Listing 17-19. + +<Listing number="17-19" caption="Using `Pin` directly with the `pin!` macro to avoid unnecessary heap allocations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-19/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We got this far by ignoring the fact that we might have different `Output` +types. For example, in Listing 17-20, the anonymous future for `a` implements +`Future<Output = u32>`, the anonymous future for `b` implements `Future<Output = +&str>`, and the anonymous future for `c` implements `Future<Output = bool>`. + +<Listing number="17-20" caption="Three futures with distinct types" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-20/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We can use `trpl::join!` to await them, because it allows you to pass in +multiple future types and produces a tuple of those types. We *cannot* use +`trpl::join_all`, because it requires the futures passed in all to have the same +type. Remember, that error is what got us started on this adventure with `Pin`! + +This is a fundamental tradeoff: we can either deal with a dynamic number of +futures with `join_all`, as long as they all have the same type, or we can deal +with a set number of futures with the `join` functions or the `join!` macro, +even if they have different types. This is the same as working with any other +types in Rust, though. Futures are not special, even though we have some nice +syntax for working with them, and that is a good thing. + +### Racing futures + +When we “join” futures with the `join` family of functions and macros, we +require *all* of them to finish before we move on. Sometimes, though, we only +need *some* future from a set to finish before we move on—kind of like racing +one future against another. This operation is often named `race` for exactly +that reason. + +> Note: Under the hood, `race` is built on a more general function, `select`, +> which you will encounter more often in real-world Rust code. A `select` +> function can do a lot of things that `trpl::race` function cannot, but it also +> has some additional complexity that we can skip over for now. + +In Listing 17-21, we use `trpl::race` to run two futures, `slow` and `fast`, +against each other. Each one prints a message when it starts running, pauses for +some amount of time by calling and awaiting `sleep`, and then prints another +message when it finishes. Then we pass both to `trpl::race` and wait for one of +them to finish. (The outcome here won’t be too surprising: `fast` wins!) Note +that unlike the first time we used `race` back in [Our First Async +Program][async-program], we just ignore the `Either` instance it returns here, +because all of the interesting behavior happens in the body of the async blocks. + +<Listing number="17-21" caption="Using `race` to get the result of whichever future finishes first" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-21/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Notice that if you flip the order of the arguments to `race`, the order of the +“started” messages changes, even though the `fast` future always completes +first. That is because the implementation of this particular `race` function is +not fair. It always runs the futures passed as arguments in the order they are +passed. Other implementations *are* fair, and will randomly choose which future +to poll first. Regardless of whether the implementation of race we are using is +fair, though, *one* of the futures will run up to the first `.await` in its body +before another task can start. + +Recall from [Our First Async Program][async-program] that at each await point, +Rust gives a runtime a chance to pause the task and switch to another one if the +future being awaited is not ready. The inverse is also true: Rust *only* pauses +async blocks and hands control back to a runtime at an await point. Everything +between await points is synchronous. + +That means if you do a bunch of work in an async block without an await point, +that future will block any other futures from making progress. You may sometimes +hear this referred to as one future *starving* other futures. In some cases, +that may not be a big deal. However, if you are doing some kind of expensive +setup or long-running work, or if you have a future which will keep doing some +particular task indefinitely, you will need to think about when and where to +hand control back to the runtime. + +By the same token, if you have long-running blocking operations, async can be a +useful tool for providing ways for different parts of the program to relate to +each other. + +But *how* would you hand control back to the runtime in those cases? + +### Yielding + +Let’s simulate a long-running operation. Listing 17-22 introduces a `slow` +function. It uses `std::thread::sleep` instead of `trpl::sleep` so that calling +`slow` will block the current thread for some number of milliseconds. We can use +`slow` to stand in for real-world operations which are both long-running and +blocking. + +<Listing number="17-22" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-22/src/main.rs:slow}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-23, we use `slow` to emulate doing this kind of CPU-bound work in +a pair of futures. To begin, each future only hands control back to the runtime +*after* carrying out a bunch of slow operations. + +<Listing number="17-23" caption="Using `thread::sleep` to simulate slow operations" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-23/src/main.rs:slow-futures}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, you will see this output: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/ +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'b' ran for 350ms +'a' finished. +``` + +As with our earlier example, `race` still finishes as soon as `a` is done. There +is no interleaving between the two futures, though. The `a` future does all of +its work until the `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, then the `b` future does all +of its work until its own `trpl::sleep` call is awaited, and then the `a` future +completes. To allow both futures to make progress between their slow tasks, we +need await points so we can hand control back to the runtime. That means we need +something we can await! + +We can already see this kind of handoff happening in Listing 17-23: if we +removed the `trpl::sleep` at the end of the `a` future, it would complete +without the `b` future running *at all*. Maybe we could use the `sleep` function +as a starting point? + +<Listing number="17-24" caption="Using `sleep` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +In Listing 17-24, we add `trpl::sleep` calls with await points between each call +to `slow`. Now the two futures’ work is interleaved: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-24 +cargo run +copy just the output +--> + +```text +'a' started. +'a' ran for 30ms +'b' started. +'b' ran for 75ms +'a' ran for 10ms +'b' ran for 10ms +'a' ran for 20ms +'b' ran for 15ms +'a' finished. +``` + +The `a` future still runs for a bit before handing off control to `b`, because +it calls `slow` before ever calling `trpl::sleep`, but after that the futures +swap back and forth each time one of them hits an await point. In this case, we +have done that after every call to `slow`, but we could break up the work +however makes the most sense to us. + +We do not really want to *sleep* here, though: we want to make progress as fast +as we can. We just need to hand back control to the runtime. We can do that +directly, using the `yield_now` function. In Listing 17-25, we replace all those +`sleep` calls with `yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-25" caption="Using `yield_now` to let operations switch off making progress" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-25/src/main.rs:yields}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This is both clearer about the actual intent and can be significantly faster +than using `sleep`, because timers like the one used by `sleep` often have +limits to how granular they can be. The version of `sleep` we are using, for +example, will always sleep for at least a millisecond, even if we pass it a +`Duration` of one nanosecond. Again, modern computers are *fast*: they can do a +lot in one millisecond! + +You can see this for yourself by setting up a little benchmark, like the one in +Listing 17-26. (This is not an especially rigorous way to do performance +testing, but it suffices to show the difference here.) Here, we skip all the +status printing, pass a one-nanosecond `Duration` to `trpl::sleep`, and let +each future run by itself, with no switching between the futures. Then we run +for 1,000 iterations and see how long the future using `trpl::sleep` takes +compared to the future using `trpl::yield_now`. + +<Listing number="17-26" caption="Comparing the performance of `sleep` and `yield_now`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-26/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +The version with `yield_now` is *way* faster! + +This means that async can be useful even for compute-bound tasks, depending on +what else your program is doing, because it provides a useful tool for +structuring the relationships between different parts of the program. This is a +form of *cooperative multitasking*, where each future has both the power to +determine when it hands over control via await points. Each future therefore +also has the responsibility to avoid blocking for too long. In some Rust-based +embedded operating systems, this is the *only* kind of multitasking! + +In real-world code, you will not usually be alternating function calls with +await points on every single line, of course. While yielding control like this +is relatively inexpensive, it is not free! In many cases, trying to break up a +compute-bound task might make it significantly slower, so sometimes it is better +for *overall* performance to let an operation block briefly. You should always +measure to see what your code’s actual performance bottlenecks are. The +underlying dynamic is an important one to keep in mind if you *are* seeing a lot of work happening in serial that you expected to happen concurrently, though! + +### Building Our Own Async Abstractions + +We can also compose futures together to create new patterns. For example, we can +build a `timeout` function with async building blocks we already have. When we +are done, the result will be another building block we could use to build up yet +further async abstractions. + +Listing 17-27 shows how we would expect this `timeout` to work with a slow +future. + +<Listing number="17-27" caption="Using our imagined `timeout` to run a slow operation with a time limit" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-27/src/main.rs:here}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Let’s implement this! To begin, let’s think about the API for `timeout`: + +* It needs to be an async function itself so we can await it. +* Its first parameter should be a future to run. We can make it generic to allow + it to work with any future. +* Its second parameter will be the maximum time to wait. If we use a `Duration`, + that will make it easy to pass along to `trpl::sleep`. +* It should return a `Result`. If the future completes successfully, the + `Result` will be `Ok` with the value produced by the future. If the timeout + elapses first, the `Result` will be `Err` with the duration that the timeout + waited for. + +Listing 17-28 shows this declaration. + +<!-- This is not tested because it intentionally does not compile. --> + +<Listing number="17-28" caption="Defining the signature of `timeout`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-28/src/main.rs:declaration}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That satisfies our goals for the types. Now let’s think about the *behavior* we +need: we want to race the future passed in against the duration. We can use +`trpl::sleep` to make a timer future from the duration, and use `trpl::race` to +run that timer with the future the caller passes in. + +We also know that `race` is not fair, and polls arguments in the order they are +passed. Thus, we pass `future_to_try` to `race` first so it gets a chance to +complete even if `max_time` is a very short duration. If `future_to_try` +finishes first, `race` will return `Left` with the output from `future`. If +`timer` finishes first, `race` will return `Right` with the timer’s output of +`()`. + +In Listing 17-29, we match on the result of awaiting `trpl::race`. If the +`future_to_try` succeeded and we get a `Left(output)`, we return `Ok(output)`. +If the sleep timer elapsed instead and we get a `Right(())`, we ignore the `()` +with `_` and return `Err(max_time)` instead. + +<Listing number="17-29" caption="Defining `timeout` with `race` and `sleep`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-29/src/main.rs:implementation}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With that, we have a working `timeout`, built out of two other async helpers. If +we run our code, it will print the failure mode after the timeout: + +```text +Failed after 2 seconds +``` + +Because futures compose with other futures, you can build really powerful tools +using smaller async building blocks. For example, you can use this same approach +to combine timeouts with retries, and in turn use those with things like network +calls—one of the examples from the beginning of the chapter! + +In practice, you will usually work directly with `async` and `.await`, and +secondarily with functions and macros like `join`, `join_all`, `race`, and so +on. You will only need to reach for `pin` now and again to use them with those +APIs. + +We have now seen a number of ways to work with multiple futures at the same +time. Up next, we will look at how we can work with multiple futures in a +sequence over time, with *streams*. Here are a couple more things you might want +to consider first, though: + +* We used a `Vec` with `join_all` to wait for all of the futures in some group + to finish. How could you use a `Vec` to process a group of futures in + sequence, instead? What are the tradeoffs of doing that? + +* Take a look at the `futures::stream::FuturesUnordered` type from the `futures` + crate. How would using it be different from using a `Vec`? (Don’t worry about + the fact that it is from the `stream` part of the crate; it works just fine + with any collection of futures.) + + +[collections]: ch08-01-vectors.html#using-an-enum-to-store-multiple-types +[dyn]: ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html +[async-program]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program diff --git a/src/ch17-04-streams.md b/src/ch17-04-streams.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b3e4cac9a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-04-streams.md @@ -0,0 +1,446 @@ +## Streams + +So far in this chapter, we have mostly stuck to individual futures. The one big +exception was the async channel we used. Recall how we used the receiver for our +async channel in the [“Message Passing”][17-02-messages] earlier in the chapter. +The async `recv` method produces a sequence of items over time. This is an +instance of a much more general pattern, often called a *stream*. + +A sequence of items is something we have seen before, when we looked at the +`Iterator` trait in Chapter 13, but there are two differences between iterators +and the async channel receiver. The first difference is the element of time: +iterators are synchronous, while the channel receiver is asynchronous. The +second difference is the API. When working directly with an `Iterator`, we call +its synchronous `next` method. With a `trpl::Receiver`, we call an asynchronous +`recv` method instead, but these APIs otherwise feel very similar. + +That similarity is not a coincidence. A stream is like an asynchronous form of +iteration. Whereas the `trpl::Receiver` specifically waits to receive messages, +though, a general-purpose stream API needs to be much more general: it will just +provide the next item like `Iterator` does, but asynchronously. In fact, this is +roughly how it works in Rust, so we can actually create a stream from any +iterator. As with an iterator, we can work with a stream by calling its `next` +method, and then awaiting the output, as in Listing 17-30. + +<Listing number="17-30" caption="Creating a stream from an iterator and printing its values" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/src/main.rs:stream}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We start with an array of numbers, which we convert to an iterator and then call +`map` on to double all the values. Then we convert the iterator into a stream +using the `trpl::stream_from_iter` function. Then we loop over the items in the +stream as they arrive with the `while let` loop + +Unfortunately, when we try to run the code, it does not compile. Instead, as we +can see in the output, it reports that there is no `next` method available. + +<!-- TODO: fix up the path here? --> +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/chapter-17-async-await/listing-17-30 +cargo build +copy only the error output +--> + +```console +error[E0599]: no method named `next` found for struct `Iter` in the current scope + --> src/main.rs:8:40 + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.next().await { + | ^^^^ + | + = note: the full type name has been written to '/Users/chris/dev/rust-lang/book/listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-30/target/debug/deps/async_await-bbd5bb8f6851cb5f.long-type-18426562901668632191.txt' + = note: consider using `--verbose` to print the full type name to the console + = help: items from traits can only be used if the trait is in scope +help: the following traits which provide `next` are implemented but not in scope; perhaps you want to import one of them + | +1 + use futures_util::stream::stream::StreamExt; + | +1 + use std::iter::Iterator; + | +1 + use std::str::pattern::Searcher; + | +1 + use trpl::StreamExt; + | +help: there is a method `try_next` with a similar name + | +8 | while let Some(value) = stream.try_next().await { + | ~~~~~~~~ + +For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0599`. +``` + +As the output suggests, the problem is that we need the right trait in scope to +be able to use the `next` method. Given our discussion so far, you might +reasonably expect that to be `Stream`, but the trait we need *here* is actually +`StreamExt`. The `Ext` there is for “extension”: this is a common pattern in +the Rust community for extending one trait with another. + +You might be wondering why `StreamExt` instead of `Stream`, and for that matter +whether there is a `Stream` type at all. Briefly, the answer is that throughout +the Rust ecosystem, the `Stream` trait defines a low-level interface which +effectively combines the `Iterator` and `Future` traits. The `StreamExt` trait +supplies a higher-level set of APIs on top of `Stream`, including the `next` +method and also many other utility methods like those from `Iterator`. We will +return to the `Stream` and `StreamExt` traits in a bit more detail at the end of +the chapter. For now, this is enough to let us keep moving. + +All we need to do here is add a `use` statement for `trpl::StreamExt`, as in +Listing 17-31. + +<Listing number="17-31" caption="Successfully using an iterator as the basis for a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-31/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +With all those pieces put together, things work the way we want! What is more, +now that we have `StreamExt` in scope, we can use all of its utility methods, +just like with iterators. For example, in Listing 17-32, we use the `filter` +method to filter out everything but multiples of three and five. + +<Listing number="17-32" caption="Filtering a `Stream` with the `StreamExt::filter` method" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-32/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Of course, this is not very interesting. We could do that with normal iterators +and without any async at all. So let’s look at some of the other things we can +do which are unique to streams. + +### Composing Streams + +Lots of things are naturally represented as streams: items becoming available in +a queue, or working with more data than can fit in a computer’s memory by only +pulling chunks of it from the file system at a time, or data arriving over the +network over time. Because streams are futures, we can use them with any other +kind of future, too, and we can combine them in interesting ways. For example, +we can batch up events to avoid triggering too many network calls, set timeouts +on sequences of long-running operations, or throttle user interface events to +avoid doing needless work. + +Let’s start by building a little stream of messages, similar to what we might +see from a WebSocket or other real-time communication protocols. In Listing +17-33, we create a function `get_messages` which returns `impl Stream<Item = +String>`. For its implementation, we create an async channel, loop over the +first ten letters of the English alphabet, and send them across the channel. + +We also use a new type: `ReceiverStream`, which converts the `rx` receiver from +the `trpl::channel` into a `Stream` with a `next` method. Back in `main`, we use +a `while let` loop to print all the messages from the stream. + +<Listing number="17-33" caption="Using the `rx` receiver as a `ReceiverStream`" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-33/src/main.rs:all}} +``` + +</Listing> + +When we run this code, we get exactly the results we would expect: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the threads running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Message: 'j' +``` + +We could do this with the regular `Receiver` API, or even the regular `Iterator` +API, though. Let’s add something that requires streams, like adding a timeout +which applies to every item in the stream, and a delay on the items we emit. + +In Listing 17-34, we start by adding a timeout to the stream with the `timeout` +method, which comes from the `StreamExt` trait. Then we update the body of the +`while let` loop, because the stream now returns a `Result`. The `Ok` variant +indicates a message arrived in time; the `Err` variant indicates that the +timeout elapsed before any message arrived. We `match` on that result and either +print the message when we receive it successfully, or print a notice about the +timeout. Finally, notice that we pin the messages after applying the timeout to +them, because the timeout helper produces a future which needs to be pinned to +be polled. + +<Listing number="17-34" caption="Using the `StreamExt::timeout` method to set a time limit on the items in a stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-34/src/main.rs:timeout}} +``` + +</Listing> + +However, since there are no delays between messages, this timeout does not +change the behavior of the program. Let’s add a variable delay to the messages +we send. In `get_messages`, we use the `enumerate` iterator method with the +`messages` array so that we can get the index of each item we are sending along +with the item itself. Then we apply a 100 millisecond delay to even-index items +and a 300 millisecond delay to odd-index items, to simulate the different delays +we might see from a stream of messages in the real world. Because our timeout is +for 200 milliseconds, this should affect half of the messages. + +<Listing number="17-35" caption="Sending messages through `tx` with an async delay without making `get_messages` an async function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-35/src/main.rs:messages}} +``` + +</Listing> + +To sleep between messages in the `get_messages` function without blocking, we +need to use async. However, we cannot make `get_messages` itself into an async +function, because then we would return a `Future<Output = Stream<Item = +String>>` instead of just a `Stream<Item = String>>`. The caller would have to +await `get_messages` itself to get access to the stream. But remember: +everything in a given future happens linearly; concurrency happens *between* +futures. Awaiting `get_messages` would require it to send all the messages, +including sleeping between sending each message, before returning the receiver +stream. As a result, the timeout would end up useless. There would be no delays +in the stream itself: the delays would all happen before the stream was even +available. + +Instead, we leave `get_messages` as a regular function which returns a stream, +and spawn a task to handle the async `sleep` calls. + +> Note: calling `spawn_task` like this works because we already set up our +> runtime. Calling this particular implementation of `spawn_task` *without* +> first setting up a runtime will cause a panic. Other implementations choose +> different tradeoffs: they might spawn a new runtime and so avoid the panic but +> end up with a bit of extra overhead, or simply not provide a standalone way to +> spawn tasks without reference to a runtime. You should make sure you know what +> tradeoff your runtime has chosen and write your code accordingly! + +Now our code has a much more interesting result! Between every other pair of +messages, we see an error reported: `Problem: Elapsed(())`. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-35 +cargo run +copy only the program output, *not* the compiler output +--> + +```text +Message: 'a' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'b' +Message: 'c' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'd' +Message: 'e' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'f' +Message: 'g' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'h' +Message: 'i' +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Message: 'j' +``` + +The timeout does not prevent the messages from arriving in the end—we still get +all of the original messages. This is because our channel is unbounded: it can +hold as many messages as we can fit in memory. If the message does not arrive +before the timeout, our stream handler will account for that, but when it polls +the stream again, the message may now have arrived. + +You can get different behavior if needed by using other kinds of channels, or +other kinds of streams more generally. Let’s see one of those in practice in our +final example for this section, by combining a stream of time intervals with +this stream of messages. + +### Merging Streams + +First, let’s create another stream, which will emit an item every millisecond if +we let it run directly. For simplicity, we can use the `sleep` function to send +a message on a delay, and combine it with the same approach of creating a stream +from a channel we used in `get_messages`. The difference is that this time, we +are going to send back the count of intervals which has elapsed, so the return +type will be `impl Stream<Item = u32>`, and we can call the function +`get_intervals`. + +In Listing 17-36, we start by defining a `count` in the task. (We could define +it outside the task, too, but it is clearer to limit the scope of any given +variable.) Then we create a an infinite loop. Each iteration of the loop +asynchronously sleeps for one millisecond, increments the count, and then sends +it over the channel. Since this is all wrapped in the task created by +`spawn_task`, all of it will get cleaned up along with the runtime, including +the infinite loop. + +<Listing number="17-36" caption="Creating a stream with a counter that will be emitted once every millisecond" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-36/src/main.rs:intervals}} +``` + +</Listing> + +This kind of infinite loop, which only ends when the whole runtime gets torn +down, is fairly common in async Rust: many programs need to keep running +indefinitely. With async, this does not block anything else, as long as there is +at least one await point in each iteration through the loop. + +Back in our main function’s async block, we start by calling `get_intervals`. +Then we merge the `messages` and `intervals` streams with the `merge` method. +Finally, we loop over that combined stream instead of over `messages` (Listing +17-37). + +<Listing number="17-37" caption="Attempting to merge streams of messages and intervals" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore,does_not_compile +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-37/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + +At this point, neither `messages` nor `intervals` needs to be pinned or mutable, +because both will be combined into the single `merged` stream. However, this +call to `merge` does not compile! (Neither does the `next` call in the `while +let` loop, but we will come back to that after fixing this.) The two streams +have different types. The `messages` stream has the type `Timeout<impl +Stream<Item = String>>`, where `Timeout` is the type which implements `Stream` +for a `timeout` call. Meanwhile, the `intervals` stream has the type `impl +Stream<Item = u32>`. To merge these two streams, we need to transform one of +them to match the other. + +In Listing 17-38, we rework with the `intervals` stream, since `messages` is +already in the basic format we want and has to handle timeout errors. First, we +can use the `map` helper method to transform the `intervals` into a string. +Second, we need to match the `Timeout` from `messages`. Since we do not actually +*want* a timeout for `intervals`, though, we can just create a timeout which is +longer than the other durations we are using. Here, we create a 10-second +timeout with `Duration::from_secs(10)`. Finally, we need to make `stream` +mutable, so that the `while let` loop’s `next` calls can iterate through the +stream, and pin it so that it is safe to do so. + +<!-- We cannot directly test this one, because it never stops. --> + +<Listing number="17-38" caption="Aligning the types of the the `intervals` stream with the type of the `messages` stream" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust,ignore +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-38/src/main.rs:main}} +``` + +</Listing> + + +That gets us *almost* to where we need to be. Everything type checks. If you run +this, though, there will be two problems. First, it will never stop! You will +need to stop it with <span class="keystroke">ctrl-c</span>. Second, the +messages from the English alphabet will be buried in the midst of all the +interval counter messages: + +<!-- Not extracting output because changes to this output aren't significant; +the changes are likely to be due to the tasks running differently rather than +changes in the compiler --> + +```text +--snip-- +Interval: 38 +Interval: 39 +Interval: 40 +Message: 'a' +Interval: 41 +Interval: 42 +Interval: 43 +--snip-- +``` + +Listing 17-39 shows one way to solve these last two problems. First, we use the +`throttle` method on the `intervals` stream, so that it does not overwhelm the +`messages` stream. Throttling is a way of limiting the rate at which a function +will be called—or, in this case, how often the stream will be polled. Once every +hundred milliseconds should do, since that is in the same ballpark as how often +our messages arrive. + +To limit the number of items we will accept from a stream, we can use the `take` +method. We apply it to the *merged* stream, because we want to limit the final +output, not just one stream or the other. + +<Listing number="17-39" caption="Using `throttle` and `take` to manage the merged streams" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-39/src/main.rs:throttle}} +``` + +</Listing> + +Now when we run the program, it stop after pulling twenty items from the stream, +and the intervals do not overwhelm the messages. We also do not get `Interval: +100` or `Interval: 200` or so on, but instead simply get `Interval: 1`, +`Interval: 2`, and so on—even though we have a source stream which *can* produce +an event every millisecond. That is because the `throttle` call produces a new +stream, wrapping the original stream, so that the original stream only gets +polled at the throttle rate, not its own “native” rate. We do not have a bunch +of unhandled interval messages we are simply choosing to ignore. Instead, we +never produce those interval messages in the first place! This is the inherent +“laziness” of Rust’s futures at work again, allowing us to choose our +performance characteristics. + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/listing-17-39 +cargo run +copy and paste only the program output +--> + +```text +Interval #1 +Message: 'a' +Interval #2 +Interval #3 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #4 +Message: 'b' +Interval #5 +Message: 'c' +Interval #6 +Interval #7 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #8 +Message: 'd' +Interval #9 +Message: 'e' +Interval #10 +Interval #11 +Problem: Elapsed(()) +Interval #12 +``` + +There is one last thing we need to handle: errors! With both of these +channel-based streams, the `send` calls could fail when the other side of the +channel closes—and that is just a matter of how the runtime executes the futures +which make up the stream. Up till now we have ignored this by calling `unwrap`, +but in a well-behaved app, we should explicitly handle the error, at minimum by +ending the loop so we do not try to send any more messages! Listing 17-40 shows +a simple error strategy: print the issue and then `break` from the loops. As +usual, the correct way to handle a message send error will vary—just make sure +you have a strategy. + +<Listing number="17-40" caption="Handling errors and shutting down the loops"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-40/src/main.rs:errors}} +``` + +</Listing> + +That is a good note to turn to our final section and wrap up this walk through +async in Rust, by discussing how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads +relate to each other, and how you can use them together. + +[17-02-messages]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html#message-passing diff --git a/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..91193a4542 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-05-traits-for-async.md @@ -0,0 +1,391 @@ +## Digging Into the Traits for Async + +Throughout the chapter, we have used the `Future`, `Pin`, `Unpin`, `Stream`, and +`StreamExt` traits in various ways. So far, though, we have avoided digging too +far into the details of how they work or how they fit together. Much of the time +when writing Rust day to day, this is fine. Sometimes, though, you will hit +situations where understanding a few more of these details matters. In this +section, we will dig down *enough* further to help with those situations—while +still leaving the *really* deep dive for other documentation! + + +### Future + +Back in [Futures and the Async Syntax][futures-syntax], we noted that `Future` +is a trait. Let’s start by taking a closer look at how it works. Here is how +Rust defines a `Future`: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +That trait definition includes a bunch of new types and also some syntax we have +not seen before, so let’s walk through the definition piece by piece. + +First, `Future`’s associated type `Output` says what the future resolves to. +This is analogous to the `Item` associated type for the `Iterator` trait. +Second, `Future` also has the `poll` method, which takes a special `Pin` +reference for its `self` parameter and a mutable reference to a `Context` type, +and returns a `Poll<Self::Output>`. We will talk a little more about `Pin` and +`Context` later in the section. For now, let’s focus on what the method returns, +the `Poll` type: + +```rust +enum Poll<T> { + Ready(T), + Pending +} +``` + +This `Poll` type is a lot like an `Option`: it has one variant which has a value +(`Ready(T)`), and one which does not (`Pending`). It means something quite +different, though! The `Pending` variant indicates that the future still has +work to do, so the caller will need to check again later. The `Ready` variant +indicates that the `Future` has finished its work and the `T` value is +available. + +> Note: With most futures, the caller should not call `poll` again after the +> future has returned `Ready`. Many futures will panic if polled again after +> becoming ready! Futures which are safe to poll again will say so explicitly in +> their documentation. This is similar to how `Iterator::next` behaves! + +Under the hood, when you call `.await`, Rust compiles that to code which calls +`poll`, kind of (although not exactly <!-- TODO: describe `IntoFuture`? -->) +like this: + +```rust,ignore +match hello("async").poll() { + Ready(_) => { + // We’re done! + } + Pending => { + // But what goes here? + } +} +``` + +What should we do when the `Future` is still `Pending`? We need some way to try +again… and again, and again, until the future is finally ready. In other words, +a loop: + +```rust,ignore +let hello_fut = hello("async"); +loop { + match hello_fut.poll() { + Ready(_) => { + break; + } + Pending => { + // continue + } + } +} +``` + +If Rust compiled it to exactly that code, though, every `.await` would be +blocking—exactly the opposite of what we were going for! Instead, Rust needs +makes sure that the loop can hand off control to something which can pause work +on this future and work on other futures and check this one again later. That +“something” is an async runtime, and this scheduling and coordination work is +one of the main jobs for a runtime. + +Recall our description (in the [Counting][counting] section) of waiting on +`rx.recv`. The `recv` call returns a `Future`, and awaiting it polls it. In our +initial discussion, we noted that a runtime will pause the future until it is +ready with either `Some(message)` or `None` when the channel closes. With our +deeper understanding of `Future` in place, and specifically `Future::poll`, we +can see how that works. The runtime knows the future is not ready when it +returns `Poll::Pending`. Conversely, the runtime knows the future is ready and +advances it when `poll` returns `Poll::Ready(Some(message))` or +`Poll::Ready(None)`. + +The exact details of how a runtime does that are more than we will cover in even +this deep dive section. The key here is to see the basic mechanic of futures: a +runtime *polls* each future it is responsible for, putting it back to sleep when +it is not yet ready. + +### Pinning and the Pin and Unpin Traits + +<!-- TODO: get a *very* careful technical review of this section! --> + +When we introduced the idea of pinning, while working on Listing 17-17, we ran +into a very gnarly error message. Here is the relevant part of it again: + +<!-- manual-regeneration +cd listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-18 +cargo build +copy *only* the final `error` block from the errors +--> + +```text +error[E0277]: `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}` cannot be unpinned + --> src/main.rs:46:33 + | +46 | trpl::join_all(futures).await; + | ^^^^^ the trait `Unpin` is not implemented for `{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}`, which is required by `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>: std::future::Future` + | + = note: consider using the `pin!` macro + consider using `Box::pin` if you need to access the pinned value outside of the current scope + = note: required for `Box<{async block@src/main.rs:8:23: 20:10}>` to implement `std::future::Future` +note: required by a bound in `JoinAll` + --> /Users/chris/.cargo/registry/src/index.crates.io-6f17d22bba15001f/futures-util-0.3.30/src/future/join_all.rs:29:8 + | +27 | pub struct JoinAll<F> + | ------- required by a bound in this struct +28 | where +29 | F: Future, + | ^^^^^^ required by this bound in `JoinAll` + +Some errors have detailed explanations: E0277, E0308. +For more information about an error, try `rustc --explain E0277`. +``` + +When we read this error message carefully, it not only tells us that we need to +pin the values but also us why pinning is required. The `trpl::join_all` +function returns a struct called `JoinAll`. That struct in turn is generic over +a type `F`, which is constrained to implement the `Future` trait. Finally, +directly awaiting a Future requires that the future in question implement the +`Unpin` trait. That’s a lot! But we can understand it, if we dive a little +further into how the `Future` type actually works, in particular around +*pinning*. + +Let’s look again at the definition of `Future`, focusing specifically on the +`poll` method’s `self` type: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +pub trait Future { + type Output; + + // Required method + fn poll(self: Pin<&mut Self>, cx: &mut Context<'_>) -> Poll<Self::Output>; +} +``` + +This is the first time we have seen a method where `self` has a type annotation +like this. When we specify the type of `self` like this, we are telling Rust +what type `self` must be to call this method. These kinds of type annotations +for `self` are similar to those for other function parameters, but with the +restriction that the type annotation has to be the type on which the method is +implemented, or a reference or smart pointer to that type, or a `Pin` wrapping a +reference to that type. We will see more on this syntax in Chapter 18. For now, +it is enough to know that if we want to poll a future (to check whether it is +`Pending` or `Ready(Output)`), we need a mutable reference to the type, which is +wrapped in a `Pin`. + +`Pin` is a wrapper type. In some ways, it is like the `Box`, `Rc`, and other +smart pointer types we saw in Chapter 15, which also wrap other types. Unlike +those, however, `Pin` only works with *other pointer types* like reference (`&` +and `&mut`) and smart pointers (`Box`, `Rc`, and so on). To be precise, `Pin` +works with types which implement the `Deref` or `DerefMut` traits, which we +covered in Chapter 15. You can think of this restriction as equivalent to only +working with pointers, though, since implementing `Deref` or `DerefMut` means +your type behaves like a pointer type. `Pin` is also not a pointer itself, and +it does not have any behavior of its own like the ref counting of `Rc` or `Arc`. +It is purely a tool the compiler can use to uphold the relevant guarantees, by +wrapping pointers in the type. + +Recalling that `.await` is implemented in terms of calls to `poll`, this +starts to explain the error message we saw above—but that was in terms of +`Unpin`, not `Pin`. So what exactly are `Pin` and `Unpin`, how do they relate, +and why does `Future` need `self` to be in a `Pin` type to call `poll`? + +In [Our First Async Program][first-async], we described how a series of await +points in a future get compiled into a state machine—and noted how the compiler +helps make sure that state machine follows all of Rust’s normal rules around +safety, including borrowing and ownership. To make that work, Rust looks at what +data is needed between each await point and the next await point or the end of +the async block. It then creates a corresponding variant in the state machine it +creates. Each variant gets the access it needs to the data that will be used in +that section of the source code, whether by taking ownership of that data or by +getting a mutable or immutable reference to it. + +So far so good: if we get anything wrong about the ownership or references in a +given async block, the borrow checker will tell us. When we want to move around +the future that corresponds to that block—like moving it into a `Vec` to pass to +`join_all`—things get trickier. + +When we move a future—whether by pushing into a data structure to use as an +iterator with `join_all`, or returning them from a function—that actually means +moving the state machine Rust creates for us. And unlike most other types in +Rust, the futures Rust creates for async blocks can end up with references to +themselves in the fields of any given variant. Any object which has a reference +to itself is unsafe to move, though, because references always point to the +actual memory address of the thing they refer to. If you move the data structure +itself, you *have* to update any references to it, or they will be left pointing +to the old location. + +In principle, you could make the Rust compiler try to update every reference to +an object every time it gets moved. That would potentially be a lot of +performance overhead, especially given there can be a whole web of references +that need updating. On the other hand, if we could make sure the data structure +in question *does not move in memory*, we do not have to update any references. +And this is exactly what Rust’s borrow checker already guarantees: you cannot +move an item which has any active references to it using safe code. + +`Pin` builds on that to give us the exact guarantee we need. When we *pin* a +value by wrapping a pointer to it in `Pin`, it can no longer move. Thus, if you +have `Pin<Box<SomeType>>`, you actually pin the `SomeType` value, *not* the +`Box` pointer. In fact, the pinned box pointer can move around freely. Remember: +we care about making sure the data ultimately being referenced stays in its +place. If a pointer moves around, but the data it points to is in the same +place, there is no problem. + +However, most types are perfectly safe to move around, even if they happen to be +behind a `Pin` pointer. We only need to think about pinning when items have +internal references. Primitive values like numbers and booleans do not have any +internal structure like that, so they are obviously safe. Neither do most types +you normally work with in Rust. A `Vec`, for example, does not have any internal +references it needs to keep up to date this way, so you can move it around +without worrying. If you have a `Pin<Vec<String>>`, you would have to do +everything via Pin’s safe but restrictive APIs, even though a `Vec<String>` is +always safe to move if there are no other references to it. We need a way to +tell the compiler that it is actually just fine to move items around in cases +like these. For that, we have `Unpin`. + +`Unpin` is a marker trait, like `Send` and `Sync`, which we saw in Chapter 16. +Recall that marker traits have no functionality of their own. They exist only to +tell the compiler that it is safe to use the type which implements a given trait +in a particular context. `Unpin` informs the compiler that a given type does +*not* need to uphold any particular guarantees about whether the value in +question can be moved. + +Just like `Send` and `Sync`, the compiler implements `Unpin` automatically for +all types where it can prove it is safe. Implementing `Unpin` manually is unsafe +because it requires *you* to uphold all the guarantees which make `Pin` and +`Unpin` safe yourself for a type with internal references. In practice, this is +a very rare thing to implement yourself! + +Now we know enough to understand the errors reported for that `join_all` call. +We originally tried to move the futures produced by an async blocks into a +`Vec<Box<dyn Future<Output = ()>>>`, but as we have seen, those futures may have +internal references, so they do not implement `Unpin`. They need to be pinned, +and then we can pass the `Pin` type into the `Vec`, confident that the +underlying data in the futures will *not* be moved. + +`Pin` and `Unpin` are mostly important for building lower-level libraries, or +when you are building a runtime itself, rather than for day to day Rust code. +When you see them, though, now you will know what to do! + +> Note: This combination of `Pin` and `Unpin` allows a whole class of complex +> types to be safe in Rust which are otherwise difficult to implement because +> they are self-referential. Types which require `Pin` show up *most* commonly +> in async Rust today, but you might—very rarely!—see it in other contexts, too. +> +> The specific mechanics for how `Pin` and `Unpin` work under the hood are +> covered extensively in the API documentation for `std::pin`, so if you would +> like to understand them more deeply, that is a great place to start. +> +> If you want to understand how things work “under the hood” in even more +> detail, the official [_Asynchronous Programming in Rust_][async-book] book has +> you covered: +> +> - [Chapter 2: Under the Hood: Executing Futures and Tasks][under-the-hood] +> - [Chapter 4: Pinning][pinning]. + +### The Stream Trait + +Now that we have a deeper grasp on the `Future`, `Pin`, and `Unpin` traits, we +can turn our attention to the `Stream` trait. As described in the section +introducing streams, streams are like asynchronous iterators. Unlike `Iterator` +and `Future`, there is no definition of a `Stream` trait in the standard library +as of the time of writing,<!-- TODO: verify before press time! --> but there +*is* a very common definition used throughout the ecosystem. + +Let’s review the definitions of the `Iterator` and `Future` traits, so we can +build up to how a `Stream` trait that merges them together might look. From +`Iterator`, we have the idea of a sequence: its `next` method provides an +`Option<Self::Item>`. From `Future`, we have the idea of readiness over time: +its `poll` method provides a `Poll<Self::Output>`. To represent a sequence of +items which become ready over time, we define a `Stream` trait which puts those +features together: + +```rust +use std::pin::Pin; +use std::task::{Context, Poll}; + +trait Stream { + type Item; + + fn poll_next( + self: Pin<&mut Self>, + cx: &mut Context<'_> + ) -> Poll<Option<Self::Item>>; +} +``` + +The `Stream` trait defines an associated type `Item` for the type of the items +produced by the stream. This is like `Iterator`: there may be zero to many of +these, and unlike `Future`, where there is always a single `Output` (even if it +the unit type `()`). + +`Stream` also defines a method to get those items. We call it `poll_next`, to +make it clear that it polls like `Future::poll` and produces a sequence of items +like `Iterator::next`. Its return type combines `Poll`with `Option`. The outer +type is `Poll`, since it has to be checked for readiness, just like a future. +The inner type is `Option`, since it needs to signal whether there are more +messages, just like an iterator. + +Something very similar to this will likely end up standardized as part of Rust’s +standard library. In the meantime, it is part of the toolkit of most runtimes, +so you can rely on it, and everything we cover below should generally apply! + +In the example we saw in the section on streaming, though, we did not use +`poll_next` *or* `Stream`, but instead used `next` and `StreamExt`. We *could* +work directly in terms of the `poll_next` API by hand-writing our own `Stream` +state machines, of course, just as we *could* work with futures directly via +their `poll` method. Using `await` is much nicer, though, so the `StreamExt` +trait supplies the `next` method so we can do just that. + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/no-listing-stream-ext/src/lib.rs:here}} +``` + +<!-- +TODO: update this if/when tokio/etc. update their MSRV and switch to using async functions +in traits, since the lack thereof is the reason they do not yet have this. +--> + +> Note: The actual definition we will use looks slightly different than this, +> because it supports versions of Rust which did not yet support using async +> functions in traits. As a result, it looks like this: +> +> ```rust,ignore +> fn next(&mut self) -> Next<'_, Self> where Self: Unpin; +> ``` +> +> That `Next` type is just a simple `struct` which implements `Future` and gives +> a way to name the lifetime of the reference to `self` with `Next<'_, Self>`, +> so that `.await` can work with this! + +The `StreamExt` trait is also the home of all the interesting methods available +to use with streams. `StreamExt` is automatically implemented for every type +which implements `Stream`, but they are separated out so that the community can +iterate on the foundational trait distinctly from the convenience APIs. + +In the version of `StreamExt` used in the `trpl` crate, the trait not only +defines the `next` method, it also supplies an implementation of `next`, which +correctly handles the details of calling `Stream::poll_next`. This means that +even when you need to write your own streaming data type, you *only* have to +implement `Stream`, and then anyone who uses your data type can use `StreamExt` +and its methods with it automatically. + +[futures-syntax]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html +[counting]: ch17-02-concurrency-with-async.html +[async-book]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/ +[under-the-hood]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/02_execution/01_chapter.html +[pinning]: https://rust-lang.github.io/async-book/04_pinning/01_chapter.html +[first-async]: ch17-01-futures-and-syntax.html#our-first-async-program + +That’s all we’re going to cover for the lower-level details on these traits. To +wrap up, let’s consider how futures (including streams), tasks, and threads all +fit together! diff --git a/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..a10b391bf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/ch17-06-futures-tasks-threads.md @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +# Futures, Tasks, and Threads + +As we saw in the previous chapter, threads provide one approach to concurrency. +We have seen another approach to concurrency in this chapter, using async with +futures and streams. You might be wondering why you would choose one or the +other. The answer is: it depends! And in many cases, it is not threads *or* +async but rather threads *and* async. + +Many operating systems have supplied threading-based concurrency models for +decades now, and many programming languages have support for them as a result. +However, they are not without their tradeoffs. On many operating systems, they +use a fair bit of memory for each thread, and they come with some overhead for +starting up and shutting down. Threads are also only an option when your +operating system and hardware support them! Unlike mainstream desktop and mobile +computers, some embedded systems do not have an OS at all, so they also do not +have threads! + +The async model provides a different—and ultimately complementary—set of +tradeoffs. In the async model, concurrent operations do not require their own +threads. Instead, they can run on tasks, as when we used `trpl::spawn_task` to +kick off work from a synchronous function throughout the streams section. A task +is a lot like a thread—but instead of being managed by the operating system, it +is managed by library-level code: the runtime. + +In the previous section, we saw that we could build a `Stream` by using an async +channel and spawning an async task which we could call from synchronous code. We +could do the exact same thing with a thread! In Listing 17-40, we used +`trpl::spawn_task` and `trpl::sleep`. In Listing 17-41, we replace those with +the `thread::spawn` and `thread::sleep` APIs from the standard library in the +`get_intervals` function. + +<Listing number="17-41" caption="Using the `std::thread` APIs instead of the async `trpl` APIs for the `get_intervals` function" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-41/src/main.rs:threads}} +``` + +</Listing> + +If you run this, the output is identical. And notice how little changes here +from the perspective of the calling code! What is more, even though one of our +functions spawned an async task on the runtime and the other spawned an +OS thread, the resulting streams were unaffected by the differences. + +However, there is a significant difference between these two approaches behave, +although we might have a hard time measuring it in this very simple example. We +could spawn hundreds of thousands or even millions of async tasks on any modern +personal computer. If we tried to do that with threads, we would literally run +out of memory! + +However, there is a reason these APIs are so similar. Threads act as a boundary +for sets of synchronous operations; concurrency is possible *between* threads. +Tasks act as a boundary for sets of *asynchronous* operations; concurrency is +possible both *between* and *within* tasks. In that regard, tasks are kind of +like lightweight, runtime-managed threads with added capabilities that come from +being managed by a runtime instead of by the operating system. Futures are an +even more granular unit of concurrency, where each future may represent a tree +of other futures. That is, the runtime—specifically, its executor—manages tasks, +and tasks manage futures. + +However, this does not mean that async tasks are always better than threads, any +more than that threads are always better than tasks. + +On the one hand, concurrency with threads is in some ways a simpler programming +model than concurrency with `async`. Threads are somewhat “fire and forget,” +they have no native equivalent to a future, so they simply run to completion, +without interruption except by the operating system itself. That is, they have +no *intra-task concurrency* like futures can. Threads in Rust also have no +mechanisms for cancellation—a subject we have not covered in depth in this +chapter, but which is implicit in the fact that whenever we ended a future, its +state got cleaned up correctly. + +These limitations make threads harder to compose than futures. It is much more +difficult, for example, to build something like the `timeout` we built in +[“Building Our Own Async Abstractions”][combining-futures], or the `throttle` +method we used with streams in [“Composing Streams”][streams]. The fact that +futures are richer data structures means they *can* be composed together more +naturally, as we have seen. + +Tasks then give *additional* control over futures, allowing you to choose where +and how to group them. And it turns out that threads and tasks often work very +well together, because tasks can (at least in some runtimes) be moved around +between threads. We have not mentioned it up until now, but under the hood the +`Runtime` we have been using, including the `spawn_blocking` and `spawn_task` +functions, is multithreaded by default! Many runtimes use an approach called +*work stealing* to transparently move tasks around between threads based on the +current utilization of the threads, with the aim of improving the overall +performance of the system. To build that actually requires threads *and* tasks, +and therefore futures. + +As a default way of thinking about which to use when: + +- If the task is *very parallelizable*, like processing a bunch of data where + each part can be processed separately, threads are a better choice. +- If the task is *very concurrent*, like handling messages from a bunch of + different sources which may come in a different intervals or different rates, + async is a better choice. + +And if you need some mix of parallelism and concurrency, you do not have to +choose between threads and async. You can use them together freely, letting each +one serve the part it is best at. For example, Listing 17-TODO shows a fairly +common example of this kind of mix in real-world Rust code. + +<!-- TODO: extract into a listing file! --> + +<Listing number="17-42" caption="Sending messages with blocking code in a thread and awaiting the messages in an async block" file-name="src/main.rs"> + +```rust +{{#rustdoc_include ../listings/ch17-async-await/listing-17-42/src/main.rs}} +``` + +</Listing> + +We begin by creating an async channel. Then we spawn a thread which takes +ownership of the sender side of the channel. Within the thread, we send the +numbers 1 through 10, and sleep for a second in between each. Finally, we run a +future created with an async block passed to `trpl::run` just like we have +throughout the chapter. In that future, we await those messages, just like in +the other message-passing examples we have seen. + +To return to the examples we opened the chapter with: you could imagine running +a set of video encoding tasks using a dedicated thread, since video encoding is +compute bound, but notifying the UI that those operations are done with an async +channel. Examples of this kind of mix abound! + +## Summary + +This isn’t the last you’ll see of concurrency in this book: the project in +Chapter 21 will use the concepts in this chapter in a more realistic situation +than the smaller examples discussed here—and compare more directly what it looks +like to solve these kinds of problems with threading vs. with tasks and futures. + +Whether with threads, with futures and tasks, or with the combination of them +all, Rust gives you the tools you need to write safe, fast, concurrent +code—whether for a high-throughput web server or an embedded operating system. + +Next, we’ll talk about idiomatic ways to model problems and structure solutions +as your Rust programs get bigger. In addition, we’ll discuss how Rust’s idioms +relate to those you might be familiar with from object-oriented programming. + + +[combining-futures]: ch17-03-more-futures.html#building-our-own-async-abstractions +[streams]: ch17-04-streams.html#composing-streams diff --git a/src/ch17-00-oop.md b/src/ch18-00-oop.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-00-oop.md rename to src/ch18-00-oop.md diff --git a/src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md b/src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch17-01-what-is-oo.md rename to src/ch18-01-what-is-oo.md diff --git a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md rename to src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md index 2d3fea24a1..c6a90ab2ff 100644 --- a/src/ch17-02-trait-objects.md +++ b/src/ch18-02-trait-objects.md @@ -253,4 +253,4 @@ support in Listing 17-9, so it’s a trade-off to consider. [performance-of-code-using-generics]: ch10-01-syntax.html#performance-of-code-using-generics -[dynamically-sized]: ch19-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait +[dynamically-sized]: ch20-04-advanced-types.html#dynamically-sized-types-and-the-sized-trait diff --git a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md rename to src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md index 13503ef02b..6044841631 100644 --- a/src/ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch18-03-oo-design-patterns.md @@ -513,4 +513,4 @@ lots of flexibility. We’ve looked at them briefly throughout the book but haven’t seen their full capability yet. Let’s go! [more-info-than-rustc]: ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html#cases-in-which-you-have-more-information-than-the-compiler -[macros]: ch19-06-macros.html#macros +[macros]: ch20-06-macros.html#macros diff --git a/src/ch18-00-patterns.md b/src/ch19-00-patterns.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-00-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-00-patterns.md diff --git a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md rename to src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md index 58f5af573b..e6f9ebd2cb 100644 --- a/src/ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md +++ b/src/ch19-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.md @@ -247,4 +247,4 @@ be irrefutable; in other circumstances, they can be refutable. We’ll discuss these two concepts next. [ignoring-values-in-a-pattern]: -ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern +ch19-03-pattern-syntax.html#ignoring-values-in-a-pattern diff --git a/src/ch18-02-refutability.md b/src/ch19-02-refutability.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-02-refutability.md rename to src/ch19-02-refutability.md diff --git a/src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md b/src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch18-03-pattern-syntax.md rename to src/ch19-03-pattern-syntax.md diff --git a/src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md b/src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-00-advanced-features.md rename to src/ch20-00-advanced-features.md diff --git a/src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md b/src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-01-unsafe-rust.md rename to src/ch20-01-unsafe-rust.md diff --git a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md rename to src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md index 789591357b..a32b0e1da7 100644 --- a/src/ch19-03-advanced-traits.md +++ b/src/ch20-03-advanced-traits.md @@ -459,7 +459,7 @@ behavior—we would have to implement just the methods we do want manually. This newtype pattern is also useful even when traits are not involved. Let’s switch focus and look at some advanced ways to interact with Rust’s type system. -[newtype]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +[newtype]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types [implementing-a-trait-on-a-type]: ch10-02-traits.html#implementing-a-trait-on-a-type [traits-defining-shared-behavior]: diff --git a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md similarity index 98% rename from src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md rename to src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md index 2dfed23cca..427c108aa4 100644 --- a/src/ch19-04-advanced-types.md +++ b/src/ch20-04-advanced-types.md @@ -288,10 +288,10 @@ pointer. In this case, we’ve chosen a reference. Next, we’ll talk about functions and closures! [encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details]: -ch17-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details +ch18-01-what-is-oo.html#encapsulation-that-hides-implementation-details [string-slices]: ch04-03-slices.html#string-slices [the-match-control-flow-operator]: ch06-02-match.html#the-match-control-flow-operator [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types -[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +[using-the-newtype-pattern]: ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#using-the-newtype-pattern-to-implement-external-traits-on-external-types diff --git a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md similarity index 97% rename from src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md rename to src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md index 88c46847d5..d0de1dfd0a 100644 --- a/src/ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md +++ b/src/ch20-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.md @@ -119,12 +119,12 @@ We can use a trait object: This code will compile just fine. For more about trait objects, refer to the section [“Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types”][using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]<!-- -ignore --> in Chapter 17. +ignore --> in Chapter 18. Next, let’s look at macros! [advanced-traits]: -ch19-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits +ch20-03-advanced-traits.html#advanced-traits [enum-values]: ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html#enum-values [using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types]: -ch17-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types +ch18-02-trait-objects.html#using-trait-objects-that-allow-for-values-of-different-types diff --git a/src/ch19-06-macros.md b/src/ch20-06-macros.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch19-06-macros.md rename to src/ch20-06-macros.md diff --git a/src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md b/src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.md rename to src/ch21-00-final-project-a-web-server.md diff --git a/src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md b/src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch20-01-single-threaded.md rename to src/ch21-01-single-threaded.md diff --git a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md similarity index 99% rename from src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md rename to src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md index cec2272db5..82d6fdf8f6 100644 --- a/src/ch20-02-multithreaded.md +++ b/src/ch21-02-multithreaded.md @@ -690,7 +690,7 @@ the associated block. In Listing 20-21, the lock remains held for the duration of the call to `job()`, meaning other workers cannot receive jobs. [creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases]: -ch19-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases +ch20-04-advanced-types.html#creating-type-synonyms-with-type-aliases [integer-types]: ch03-02-data-types.html#integer-types [fn-traits]: ch13-01-closures.html#moving-captured-values-out-of-the-closure-and-the-fn-traits diff --git a/src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md b/src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md similarity index 100% rename from src/ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md rename to src/ch21-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.md diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-01.svg b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..483bf7216d --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-01.svg @@ -0,0 +1,110 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" standalone="no"?> +<!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"> +<!-- Generated by graphviz version 12.1.0 (20240811.2233) + --> +<!-- Pages: 1 --> +<svg + viewBox="0.00 0.00 2884 775.00" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> +<g id="graph0" class="graph" transform="scale(4.16667 4.16667) rotate(0) translate(4 182)"> +<polygon fill="white" stroke="none" points="-4,4 -4,-182 688.21,-182 688.21,4 -4,4"/> +<g id="clust1" class="cluster"> +<title>cluster_task_a + +Task A + + +cluster_task_b + +Task B + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +A1->B1 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +A2->B2 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +A4->B3 + + + + + + + +B1->A2 + + + + + + +B2->A3 + + + + + + diff --git a/src/img/trpl17-02.svg b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..b2df090c23 --- /dev/null +++ b/src/img/trpl17-02.svg @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ + + + + + + + + +cluster_ColleagueB + +Task 2 + + +cluster_ColleagueA + +Task 1 + + + +B1 + +B1 + + + +B2 + +B2 + + + +B1->B2 + + + + + +B3 + +B3 + + + +B2->B3 + + + + + + + +A1 + +A1 + + + +A2 + +A2 + + + +A1->A2 + + + + + +A3 + +A3 + + + +A2->A3 + + + + + +A4 + +A4 + + + +A3->A4 + + + + + diff --git a/tests/integration/main.rs b/tests/integration/main.rs deleted file mode 100644 index 6944fae693..0000000000 --- a/tests/integration/main.rs +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ -use assert_cmd::Command; - -#[test] -fn supports_html_renderer() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "html"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_ok()); -} - -#[test] -fn errors_for_other_renderers() { - let cmd = Command::cargo_bin(env!("CARGO_PKG_NAME")) - .unwrap() - .args(["supports", "total-nonsense"]) - .ok(); - assert!(cmd.is_err()); -} - -// It would be nice to add an actual fixture for an mdbook, but doing *that* is -// going to be a bit of a pain, and what I have should cover it for now.