design_pattern_introduction.md

DESIGN PATTERNS: ELEMENTS OF REUSABLE OBJECT-ORIENTED SOFTWARE

Introduction

• Design should be solve present & future problems & requirements
• Must avoid redesign, or minimize it
• try to reuse existing good solutions than to create new solutions
• What is a DESIGN PATTERN? 1 solution that is able to solve problems a million times over without repetition
  • Has 4 essential elements: pattern name, problem, solution, consequences
    • Pattern Name: A handle used to describe a design problem, solutions, & consequences in a word or two
    • Problem: describes when to apply the patterns
    • Solution: describes the elements that make up the design, relationships, responsibilities, & collaborations
    • Consequences: the results & trade-offs of applying the pattern

The Catalog of Design patterns (23 design patterns)

1. Abstract Factory:
   • Provide an interface for creating families of related or dependent objects without specifying their concreate classes
2. Adapter:
   • Convert the interface of a class into another interface clients expect
   • Adapter lets classes work together that couldn't otherwise because of incompatible interfaces
3. Bridge:
   • Decouple an abstraction from its implementation so that the two can vary independently
4. Builder:
   • Separate the construction of a complex object from its representation
   • so that the same construction process can create different representations
5. Chain of Responsibility:
   • Avoid coupling the sender of a request to its receiver by giving more than 1 object a chance to handle the request
   • Chain the receiving objects and pass the request along the chain until an object handles it
6. Command:
   • Encapsulate a request as an object,
   • thereby letting you parameterize clients with different requests, queue or log requests, and support undoable operations
7. Composite:
   • Compose objects into tree structures to represent part-whole hierarchies
   • Composite lets clients treat individual objects and compositions of objects uniformly
8. Decorator:
   • Attach additional responsibilities to an object dynaically
   • Decorators provide a flexible alternative to subclassing for extending functionality
9. Facade:
   • Provide a unified interface to a set of interfaces in a subsystem
   • Facde defines a higher-level interface that makes the subsystem easier to use
10. Factory Method:
    • Define an interface for creating an object, but let subclasses decide which class to instantiate
    • Factory method lets a class defer instantiation to subclasses
11. Flyweight:
    • Use sharing to support large numbers of fine-grained objects efficiently
12. Interpreter:
    • Given a language, define a representation for its grammar along with an interpreter that uses the representation to interpret sentences in the language
13. Iterator:
    • Provide a way to access the elements of an aggregate object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation
14. Mediator:
    • Define an object that encapsulates how a set of objects interact
    • Mediator promotes loose coupling by keeping objects from referring to each other explicitly,
    • and it lets you vary their interaction independently
15. Memento:
    • Without violating encapsulation, capture and externalize an object's internal state so that the object can be restored to this state later
16. Observer:
    • Define a 1 to many dependency between objects so that when 1 object changes state,
    • all its dependents are notified and updated automatically
17. Prototype:
    • Specify the kinds of objects to create using a prototypical instance, and create new objects by copying this prototype
18. Proxy:
    • Provide a surrogate or placeholder for another object to control access to it
19. Singleton:
    • Ensure a class only has 1 instance, and provide a global point of access to it
20. State:
    • Allow an object to alter its behavior when its internal state changes
    • The object will appear to change its class
21. Strategy:
    • Define a family of algorithms, encapsulate each 1, and make them interchangeable
    • Strategy lets the algorithm vary independently from clients that use it
22. Template Method:
    • Define the skeleton of an algorithm in an operation, deferring some steps to subclasses
    • Template method lets subclasses redefine certain steps of an algorithm without changing the algorithm's structure
23. Visitor:
    • Represent an operation to be performed on the elements of an object structure
    • Visitor lets you define a new operation without changing the classes of the elements on which it operates

Design patterns can be classified by 2 criteria:

1. Purpose: reflects what a pattern does
   • have 3 types of purposes:
     1. Creational: To do with the process of object creation
        • Ensures that your system is written in terms of interfaces, not implementations
        • Class: Defer some part of object creation to subclasses
          • Factory Method
        • Object: Defer some part of object creation to another object
          • Abstract Factory
          • Builder
          • Prototype
          • Singleton
        • When to use:
          • When the system should be independent of how its objects and products are created
          • A set of related objects is designed to be used together
          • Hiding the implementation of a product and only revealing its interface
     2. Structural: Deal with the composition of classes or objects
        • Class: Use inheritance to compose classes
          • Adapter
        • Object: Describe ways to assemble objects
          • Adapter
          • Bridge
          • Composite
          • Decorator
          • Facade
          • Flyweight
          • Proxy
     3. Behavioral: Characterize the ways in which classes or objects interact and distribute responsibility
        • Class: Use inheritance to describe algorithms and flow of control
          • Interpreter
          • Template Method
        • Object: Describe how a group of objects cooperate to perform a task that no single object can carry out alone
          • Chain of Responsibility
          • Command
          • Iterator
          • Mediator
          • Memento
          • Observer
          • State
          • Strategy
          • Visitor
2. Scope: specifies whether the pattern applies primarily to classes or objects
   • Have 2 types: classes, objects
     1. Class:
        • Deal with relationships between classes & their subclasses (focus on class relationships)
        • relationships are established through inheritance, so they are static-fixed at compile time
        • Creational
          • Factory Method
        • Structural
          • Adapter
        • Behavioral
          • Interpreter
          • Template Method
     2. Object:
        • Deal with object relationships, which can be changed at run time and are more dynamic
        • Almost all patterns use inheritance to some extent
        • Creational
          • Abstract Factory
          • Builder
          • Prototype
          • Singleton
        • Structural
          • Adapter
          • Bridge
          • Composite
          • Decorator
          • Facade
          • Flyweight
          • Proxy
        • Behavioral
          • Chain of Responsibility
          • Command
          • Iterator
          • Mediator
          • Memento
          • Observer
          • State
          • Strategy
          • Visitor

• Some patterns are often used together
  • Composite is often used with Iterator or Visitor
• Some patterns are alternatives
  • Prototype is often an alternative to Abstract Factory
• Some patterns result in similar designs even though the patterns have different intents
  • Composite & Decorator have similar structure diagrams
• Another way to organize design patterns is according to how they reference each other in their "related patterns" sections

How design patterns solve design problems

Finding appropriate objects

• Hard part about object oriented design is decomposing a system into objects due to many factors:
  • encapsulation, granularity, dependency, flexibility, performance, evolution, reusability ...
• Object oriented design methodologies favor many different approaches
  • write a problem statement, single out nouns and verbs, create corresponding classes and operations
  • Focus on the collaborations & responsibilities in your system
  • Model the real world & translate the objects found during analysis into design
• Many objecs in a design come from the analysis model, but often end up with classes that have no couterparts in the real world
  • low-level classes like arrays
  • higher-level classes:
    • Composite pattern:
      • introduces an abstraction for treating objects uniformly that doesnt't have a physical counterpart
      • strict modeling of the real world leads to a system that reflects today's realities but not necessarily tomorrow's
      • abstractions that emerge during design are key to making a design flexible
• Design patterns helps you to identify less-obvious abstractions & the objects that can capture them
  • Strategy pattern describes how to implement interchangeable families of algorithms
  • State pattern represents each state of an entity as an object

Determining object Granularity

• Design patterns can address the issue of objects being able to vary tremendously in size and number
  • Facade pattern: describes how to represent complete subsytems as objects
  • Flyweight pattern: describes how to support huge numbers of objects at the finest granularities
  • Other design patterns describe specific ways of decomposing an object into smaller objects
  • Abstract Factory & Builder patterns: yild objects whose only responsibilities are creating other objects
  • Visitor & Command patterns: yield objects responsible for only implementing a request on anther object or group of object

Specifying object interfaces

• An object's interface characterizes the complete set of requests that can be sent to the object
• Any request that matches a signature in the object's interface may be sent to the object
  • Interface: the set of all signatures defined by an object's operations
    • Signature: the operation's name, objects taken as parameters, and operation's return value declared by an object during an operation
• Design patterns help to define interfaces by identifying their key elements & data type that get sent across an interface
• Design patterns will also tell you what not to put in the interfaces
  • Memento pattern: describes how to encapsulate & save the internal state of an object to allow object restoration later
    • must define 2 interfaces:
      • a restricted one that lets clients hold & copy mementos
      • a privileged one that only the original object can use to store & retrieve state in the momento
• Design patterns specify relationships between interfaces, by requiring some classes to have similar interfaces or placing constraints on the interfaces of some classes
  • Decorator & Proxy patterns require the interfaces of Decorator & Proxy objects to be identical to the decorated & proxied objects
  • Visitor pattern: visitor interface must reflect all classes of objects that visitors can visit

Specifying object implementations

• Object's implementation is defined by its class
• The class specifies the object's internal data & representation & defines the operations the object can perform
• Objects are created by instantiating a class (the object is said to be an instance of the class)
  • Instantiating a class allocates storage for the object's internal data (made up of instance variables)
  • Associates the operations with these data
  • many similar instances of an object can be created by instantiating a class
• New classes can be defined in terms of existing classes using inheritance
  • when subclass inherits from parent class, definitions of all data & operations that the class defines are included
  • objects that are instances of the subclass will contain all data defined by the subclass & its parent classes
    • they be able to perform all operations defined by this subclass & its parents
  • Abstract class is one whose main purpose is to define a common interface for its subclasses
    • abstract class will defer some or all of its implementation to operations defined in subclasses
    • hence an abstract class cannot be instantiated
    • abstract operations are operations that an abstract class declares but doesn't implement
      • Concrete classes are classes that aren't abstract
  • Subclasses can refine & redefine behaviors of their parent classes
    • a class may override an operation defined by its parent class
      • overriding gives subclasses a chance to handle requests instead of their parent classes
  • Class inheritance lets you define classes simply by extending other classes
    • Making it easy to define families of objects having related functionality

Class vs Interface inheritance

• An object's class defines how the object is implemented
  • The class defines the object's internal state & the implementation of its operations
  • Object's type only refers to its interface-the set of requests to which it can respond
    • an object can have many types
    • objects of different classes can have the same type
• An object is an instance of a class also implies that the object supports the interface defined by the class
• Class inheritance vs Interface inheritance (subtyping)
  • Class inheritance defines an object's implementation in terms of another object's implementation
    • it's a mechanism for code & representation sharing
  • Interface inheritance (subtyping) describes when an object can be used in place of another
  • Programming languages don't make the distinction explicit
    • 2 types:
      1. inheritance means both interface and implentation inheritance (C++)
         • standard way to inherit an interface is to inherit publicly from a class that has (pure) virtual member functions
         • pure interface inheritance can be approximated by inheriting publicly from pure abstract classes
         • pure implementation or class inheritance can be approximated with private inheritance
         • manipuate objects through types defined by abstract classes
      2. inheritance means just implementation inheritance
         • can assign instances of any class to a variable
         • as long as those instances support the operation performed on the value of the variable
         • act as if subclasses were subtypes

Programming to an Interface, not an Implementation

• Polymorphism depends on inheritance's ability to define families of objects with identical interfaces
  • usually by inheriting from an abstract class
• When inheritance is used, all classes derived from an abstract class will share its interface
  • this implies that a subclass merely adds or overrides operations & does not hide operations of the parent class
  • all subclasses can then respond to the requests in the interface of this abstract class
    • making them all subtypes of the abstract class
• 2 benefits to manipulating objects solely in terms of the interface defined by abstract classes:
  1. clients are unaware of specific types of objects they use, as long as object adher to the interface as expected
  2. clients are unaware of classes that implement these objects, & only know about abstract classes defining the interface
  • this greatly reduces implementation dependencies between subsystems
  • don't declare variables to be instances of particular concrete classes
    • instead, commit only to an interface defined by an abstract class

Putting reuse mechanisms to work: Favor object composition over class inheritance

• Class inheritance & Object Composition are 2 most common techniques for reusing functionality in object oriented systems
• Inheritance vs Composition
  • Class Inheritance:
    • lets you define the implementation of 1 class in terms of another's
    • white-box reuse: reuse by subclassing
      • "white-box" refers to visibility
        • with inheritance, the internals of parent classes are often visible to subclasses
    • advantages:
      • defined statically at compile time & is straightforward to use
      • makes it easier to modify the implementation being reused
        • when a subclass overrides some but not all operations, it can affect the operations it inherits
    • disadvantages:
      • can't change the implementations inherited from parent classes at run-time
        • because inheritance is defined at compile time
      • parent classes often define at least part of their subclasses' physical representation
        • because inheritance exposes a subclass to details of its parent's implementation,
        • therefore, inheritance breaks encapsulation
          • any change in the parent's implementation will force the subclass to change
            • when implementation becomes bound up with the implementation of its parent class
        • implementation dependencies can cause problems when trying to reuse a subclass
          • should any aspect of the inherited implementaton not be appropriate for new problem domains,
          • the parent class must be rewritten or replaced by something more appropriate
          • this dependecy limits fleximibilty & reusability
      • 1 solution: inherit only from abstract classes, since they usually provide little or no implementation
  • Object Composition: an alternative to class inheritance
    • new functionality is obtained by assembling or composing objects to get more comples functionality
    • requires that the objects being composed have well-defined interfaces
    • black-box reuse: reuse by assembling or composing
      • "black-box" refers to visibility
        • no interal details of objects are visible
    • advantages
      • defined dynamically at run time through objects acquiring references to other objects
        • requires objects to respect each others' interfaces
          • which requires carefully designed interfaces that don't stop you from using 1 object with other
        • any object can be replaced at run time by another as long as it has the same type
        • fewer implentation dependencies due to an object's implementation being written in terms of object interfaces
      • helps keep each classs encapsulated & focused on 1 task
        • classes & class hierarchies will remain small
        • will be less likely to grow into unmanageable monsters
    • disadvantages
      • don't break encapsulation
        • because objects are accessed solely through their interfaces
      • will have more objects (if fewer classes)
        • system's behavior will depend on their interrelationships instead of being defined in one's class
    • ideally, shouldn't be creating new components to achieve reuse
    • should be able to get all functionality needed just by assembling existing components through object composition

Delegation

• It is a way of making composition as powerful for reuse as inheritance
• In delegation, 2 objects are involved in handling a request: a receiving object delegates operations to its delegate
  • this is analogous to subclasses deferring requests to parent classes
  • in order to receive the effect similar to inheritance when referring to receiving object through the this (self) variable
    • the receiver passes itself to the delegate to let the delegated operation refer to the receiver
• advantage
  • it makes it easy to compose behvaiors at run time & to change the way they're composed
• disadvantage
  • dynamic, highly parameterized software is harder to understand than more static software
  • there are also run time inefficiencies (but human inefficiencies are more important in the long run)
• delegation is a good design choice only when it simiplies more than it complicates
  • effectiveness depends on the context & experience on it
  • delegation works best when it's used in highly stylized ways used in standard patterns
    • State pattern: an object delegates request to a State object that represents its current state
      • purpose is to change the behavior of an object by changing the objects to which it delegates requests
    • Strategy pattern: an object delegates a specific request to an object that represents a strategy for carrying out the request
      • an object will only have 1 state, but it can have many strategies for different requests
      • purpose is to change the behavior of an object by changing the objects to which it delegates requests
    • Visitor pattern: the operation that gets performed on each element of an object structure is always delegated to the Visitor object
  • patterns that use delegation less heavily
    • Mediator pattern: introduces an object to mediate communicatoin between other objects
      • sometimes the Mediator object implements operations by forwarding them to other objects
      • other times, it passes along a reference to itself & thus uses true delegation
    • Chain of Responsibility pattern: handles request by forwarding them from 1 object to another along a chain of objects
      • sometimes this request carries with it a reference to the original object receiving the request (using delegation)
    • Bridge pattern: decouples an abstraction from its implementation
      • if the abstraction & a particular implementation are closely matched,
      • then the abstraction may simply delegate operations to that implementation
• Delegation is an extreme example of object composition
  • it shows that you can always replace inheritance with object composition as a mechanism for code reuse

Inheritance vs Parameterized types

• Parameterized types: another technique for reusing functionality
  • also known as "generics" and "templates"
  • lets you define a type without specifying all the other types it uses
    • the unspecified types are supplied as parameters at the point of reuse
  • gives us a 3rd way (in addition to class inheritance & object composition) to compose behavior in object oriented systems
  • differences between object composition, class inheritance, and parameterized types
    • object composition allows changes of behavior being composed at run time, but requires indirection & can be less efficient
    • class inheritance lets your provide default implementations for operations & lets subclasses override them
      • can not change at run time
    • parameterized types lets you change the types that a class can use
      • can not change at run time
  • Parametrized types aren't needed in languages that doesn't have compile time type checking

Relating Run time & Compile time structures

• Run time structure: often bears little resemblance to its code structure
  • it consists of rapidly changing networks of communicating objects
  • Composite pattern & Decorator pattern are useful for building complex run time structures
  • Observer pattern involves run time structures that are often hard to understand unless you know the pattern
  • Chain of Responsibility pattern also results in communication patterns that inheritance doesn't reveal
  • in general, run time structures aren't clear from the code until you understand the patterns
• Compile time structure: code structure is frozen at compile time
  • it consists of classes in fixed inheritance relationships
• Consider the distinction between object aggregation & acquaintance, & how differently they manifest themselves at compile & run times
  • Aggregation: implies that 1 object owns or is responsible for another object
    • implies that an aggregate object & its owner have identical lifetimes
    • aggregation can be implemented by defining member variables that are real instances
    • but is more common to define them as pointers or references to instances
    • tend to be fewer & more permanent than acquaintance
  • Acquaintance: implies that an object merely knows of another object
    • also called as "association" or the "using" relationship
    • acquainted objects may request operations of each other, but are not responsible for each other
    • acquaintance is a weaker relationship than aggregation & suggest much looser coupling between objects
    • acquaintance is implemented with pointers & references
    • made and remade more frequently, sometimes existing only for the duration of an operation
    • more dynamic, making them more difficult to discern in the source code
  • aggregation & acquaintance are often implemented in the same way
  • both are determined more by intent than by explicit language mechanism

Designing for change

• Key to maximizing reuse lines is in anticipating new requirements & changes to existing reuqirements
  • and in designing systems that can evolve accordingly
• To design a system that is robust to changes
  • need to consider how the system might need to change over its lifetime
  • a design that doesn't take change into account risks major redesign in the future
  • changes might involve class redefinition & implementation, client modification, & retesting
  • redesign affects many parts of software system, & unanticipated changes are expensive
• Common causes of redesign and design patterns as solutions
  1. Creating an object by specifying a class explicitly
     • this commits you to an implementation than to an interface, thus complicating future changes
     • solution: create objects indirectly
       • Abstract Factory, Factory method, Prototype
  2. Dependence on specific operations
     • this commits you to 1 way of statisying a request
     • solution: avoid hard coded requests, making it easier to change the way a request gets satisfied at compile and run time
       • Chain of Responsibility, Command
  3. Dependence on hardware & software platform
     • external OS interfaces & APIs are different on different hardware & software platforms
     • software that depends on a particular platform will be harder to port to other platforms
     • difficult to keep it up to data on its native platform
     • solution: important to design the system to limit its platform dependencies
       • Abstract Factory, Bridge
  4. Dependence on object representations or implementations
     • clients knowing how object is represented, stored, located, or implemented might need to be changed when object changes
     • solution: hiding this information from clients keeps changes from cascading
       • Abstract Factory, Bridge, Memento, Proxy
  5. Algorithmic dependencies
     • algorithms are often extended, optimized, and replaced during development & reuse
     • objects that depend on algorithm will have to change when algorithm changes
     • solution: isolate algorithms that are likely to change
       • Builder, Iterator, Strategy, Template Method, Visitor
  6. Tight coupling
     • classes that are tightly coupled are hard to reuse in isolation, since they depend on each other
     • tight coupling leads to monolithic systems, can't change or remove class without understanding & changing other classes
     • System becomes a dense mass that's hard to learn, port, and maintain
     • solution: loose coupling increases the probability that a class can be reused by itself
       • & that a system can be learned, ported, modified, & extended more easily
       • design patterns use techniques such as abstract coupling & layering to promote loosely coupled systems
       • Abstract Factory, Bridge, Chain of Responsibility, Command, Facade, Mediator, Observer
  7. Extending functionality by subclassing
     • customizing an object by subclassing isn't easy as every new class has a fixed implementation overhead
     • defining a subclass also requires an in depth understanding of the parent class
       • overriding 1 operation might require overriding another
       • an overridden operation might be required to call an inherited operation
       • subclassing can lead to an explosion of classes,
       • because you might have to introduce many new subclasses for even a simple extension
     • solution: object composition & delegation provide flexible alternatives to inheritance for combining behavior
       • add new functionality to application by composing existing objects in new ways than defining new subclasses of existing classes
       • heavy use of object composition can make designs harder to understand
         • thus design patterns produce designs where you can introduce customized functionality by defining 1 subclass
         • & composing its instances with existing ones
       • Bridge, Chain of Responsibility, Composite, Decorator, Observer, Strategy
  8. Inability to alter classes conveniently
     • sometimes have to modify a class that can't be modified conveniently
     • might need the source code, but don't have it
     • any change would require modifying lots of existing subclasses
     • solution: Use Adapter, Decorator, Visitor design patterns during such circumstances
• the role design patterns play in the development of 3 broad classes of software: application programs, toolkits, frameworks
  1. Application programs
     • internal reuse, maintainability, & extension are high priorities when building apps: document editor or spreadsheet
       • ensures that you don't design & implement more than you have to
     • design patterns make an app more maintainable when they're used to limit platform dependencies & to layer a system
       • they enahnce extensibility by showing you how to extend class hierarchies & how to exploit object composition
  2. Toolkits
     • a set of related & reusable classes designed to provide useful, general purpose functionality
       • e.g.: a set of collection classes for lists, associative tables, stacks
     • toolkit is used by writing the main body of the app & calling the code from the toolkit to reuse
     • it does not impose a particular design on the app
     • it just provide functionality that can help the app do its job
     • it also lets you as an implementer avoid recoding common functionality
     • emphasize on code reuse, are object oriented equivalend of suroutine libraries
     • Toolkit design is harder than app design, as toolkits have to work in many apps to be useful
       • moreover, toolkit writer won't know what the will be or special needs of apps designed by others
       • is important to avoid assumptions & dependencies that limits toolkit's flexibility, applicability & effectiveness
  3. Frameworks
     • it is a set of cooperating classes that make up a reusable design for a specific class of software
       • a framework can be geared toward building graphical editors for different domains
       • another framework can help build compilers for different programming languages & target machines
       • another might help build financial modeling applications
       • A framework can be customized to a particular app
         • by creating app specific subclasses of abstract classes from the framework
     • framework is used by reusing main body & writing the code it calls
       • have to write operations with particular names & calling conventions
       • this reduces the design decisions you have to make
       • framework will allow building of apps faster, but apps will have similar structure
         • easier to maintain, are more consistent to users
         • however, will lose creative freedom, since many design decisions have been made for you
     • framework dictates the architecture of the app
       • it defines the overall structure, its partitioning into classes & objects
       • the key responsibilities: how classes & objects collaborate
       • the thread of control
       • framework predefine the above design parameters so that the designer can focus on specifics of the app
       • framework captures the design decisions that are common to its application domain
       • thus framework emphasize design reuse over code reuse
         • however, framework will usually include concrete subclasses that can be used immediately
       • imperative to design the framework to be a flexible & extensible as possible
     • a framework that addresses loose coupling by using design patterns will achieve high levels of design & code reuse
     • people who know the design patterns the framework uses will gain insight into the framework faster
     • 3 major difference between design patterns and frameworks
       1. Design patterns are more abstract than frameworks
          • frameworks can be embodied in code, but only examples of patterns can be embodied in code
          • adv of framework is that they can be writtent down in programming languages
            • & can be studied, executed, & reused directly
          • design patterns have to be implemented each time they're used
            • it also explain the intent, trade-offs, & consequences of a design
       2. Design patterns are smaller architectural elements than frameworks
          • a typical framework contains several design patterns, but the reverse is never true
       3. Design patterns are less specialized than frameworks
          • frameworks always have a particular application domain
            • a graphical editor framework used in factory simulation, won't be mistaken for a simulation framework
          • design patterns can be used in nearly any kind of application
            • although specialized design patterns are possible, it won't dictate an app architecture like a framework
     • frameworks are becoming impoortant to allow object oriented systems to achieve the most reuse

How to select a Design Pattern

1. Consider how design patterns solve design problems
2. Scan intent sections
3. Study how patterns interrelate
4. Study patterns of like purpose
5. Examine a cause of redesign
6. Consider what should be variable in your design
   • this is opposite of focusing on cause of redesign
   • consider what you want to be able to change without redesign, instead of what might force a change to a design
     • the foucs is on encapsulating the concept that varies

Purpose	Design Pattern	Aspect(s) that can vary
Creational	Abstract Factory	families of product objects
	Builder	how a composite object gets created
	Factory Method	subclass of object that is instantiated
	Prototype	class of object that is instantiated
	Singleton	the sole instance of a class
Structural	Adapter	interface to an object
	Bridge	implementation to an object
	Composite	structure and composition of an object
	Decorator	responsibilities of an object without subclassing
	Facade	interface to a subsystem
	Flyweight	storage costs of objects
	Proxy	how an object is accessed; its location
Behavioral	Chain of Responsibility	object that can fulfill a request
	Command	when and how a request is fulfilled
	Interpreter	grammar and interpretation of a language
	Iterator	how an aggregate's elements are accessed, traversed
	Mediator	how and which objects interact with each other
	Memento	what private information is stored outside an object, and when
	Observer	No. of objects that depend on another object; how the dependent objects stay up to date
	State	states of an object
	Strategy	an algorithm
	Template Method	steps of an algorithm
	Visitor	operations that can be applied to object(S) without changing their class(es)

How to use a Design Pattern

1. Read the pattern once through for an overview
   • pay attention to the Applicability & Consequences section to ensure the pattern is right for the problem
2. Go back & study the Structure, Participants, & Collaborations sections
   • make sure to understand the classes & objects in the pattern & how they related to each other
3. Look at the Sample Code section to see a concrete example of the pattern in code
4. Choose names for pattern participants that are meaningful in the application context
5. Define the classes
   • declare their interfaces,
   • establish their inheritance relationships,
   • define the instanace variable that represents data & object references
   • identify existing classes in app that pattern will affect, and modify accordingly
6. Define application specific names for operations in the pattern
   • use the responsibilities & collaboration associated with each operation as a guide
7. Implement the operations to carry out the responsibilities & collaborations in the pattern

• Design patterns should not be applied indiscriminately
• It can complicate design & or cost performance to achieve flexibility & variability by introducing additional levels of indirection
• Design patterns should only be applied when the flexibility is really needed