diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index 0e23aa462..1d838b2ae 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ if(DEFINED CMAKE_PREFIX_PATH)
 endif()
 
 if(CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE STREQUAL "Debug")
-    add_compile_options(-fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage)
+    add_compile_options(-fprofile-arcs -ftest-coverage -Og -ggdb3)
 endif()
 
 if(CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE STREQUAL "Debug")
diff --git a/benchmarks/CMakeLists.txt b/benchmarks/CMakeLists.txt
index d616364f0..782cbb270 100644
--- a/benchmarks/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/benchmarks/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@ target_link_libraries(run_benchmarks ${GTEST_LIBRARY}
                                      shard
                                      watchtower
                                      locking_shard
+                                     raft
                                      transaction
                                      rpc
                                      network
@@ -26,4 +27,5 @@ target_link_libraries(run_benchmarks ${GTEST_LIBRARY}
                                      crypto
                                      secp256k1
                                      ${LEVELDB_LIBRARY}
+                                     ${NURAFT_LIBRARY}
                                      ${CMAKE_THREAD_LIBS_INIT})
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/coordinator/controller.cpp b/src/uhs/twophase/coordinator/controller.cpp
index aba46669e..9f2ddad8f 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/coordinator/controller.cpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/coordinator/controller.cpp
@@ -680,6 +680,7 @@ namespace cbdc::coordinator {
             m_start_thread.join();
         }
 
+        m_attestation_check_queue.clear();
         for(auto& t : m_attestation_check_threads) {
             if(t.joinable()) {
                 t.join();
@@ -710,7 +711,7 @@ namespace cbdc::coordinator {
                     tx,
                     m_opts.m_sentinel_public_keys,
                     m_opts.m_attestation_threshold);
-                cb(std::move(tx), valid);
+                cb(tx, valid);
             }
         }
     }
@@ -718,7 +719,7 @@ namespace cbdc::coordinator {
     auto controller::check_tx_attestation(const transaction::compact_tx& tx,
                                           attestation_check_callback cb)
         -> bool {
-        m_attestation_check_queue.push({std::move(tx), std::move(cb)});
+        m_attestation_check_queue.push({tx, std::move(cb)});
         return true;
     }
 
@@ -731,7 +732,7 @@ namespace cbdc::coordinator {
         }
 
         return check_tx_attestation(
-            std::move(tx),
+            tx,
             [&,
              res_cb = std::move(result_callback)](transaction::compact_tx tx2,
                                                   bool result) {
@@ -760,9 +761,8 @@ namespace cbdc::coordinator {
                     auto idx = m_current_batch->add_tx(tx2);
                     // Map the index of the tx to the transaction ID and
                     // sentinel ID
-                    m_current_txs->emplace(
-                        tx2.m_id,
-                        std::make_pair(std::move(res_cb), idx));
+                    m_current_txs->emplace(tx2.m_id,
+                                           std::make_pair(res_cb, idx));
                     return true;
                 }();
                 if(added) {
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.cpp b/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.cpp
index 97f16a540..4f6eaa37a 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.cpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.cpp
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
 namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
     controller::controller(size_t shard_id,
                            size_t node_id,
-                           const cbdc::config::options& opts,
+                           cbdc::config::options opts,
                            std::shared_ptr<logging::log> logger)
         : m_opts(std::move(opts)),
           m_logger(std::move(logger)),
@@ -112,6 +112,18 @@ namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
         return true;
     }
 
+    controller::~controller() {
+        m_running = false;
+        m_validation_queue.clear();
+        for(auto& t : m_validation_threads) {
+            if(t.joinable()) {
+                t.join();
+            }
+        }
+        m_validation_threads.clear();
+        m_server.reset();
+    }
+
     auto controller::raft_callback(nuraft::cb_func::Type type,
                                    nuraft::cb_func::Param* /* param */)
         -> nuraft::cb_func::ReturnCode {
@@ -158,24 +170,24 @@ namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
             auto v = validation_request();
             if(m_validation_queue.pop(v)) {
                 auto [req, cb] = v;
-                validate_request(std::move(req), std::move(cb));
+                validate_request(std::move(req), cb);
             }
         }
     }
 
     auto
-    controller::enqueue_validation(cbdc::buffer buf,
+    controller::enqueue_validation(cbdc::buffer request,
                                    cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback cb)
         -> bool {
-        m_validation_queue.push({std::move(buf), std::move(cb)});
+        m_validation_queue.push({std::move(request), std::move(cb)});
         return true;
     }
 
-    auto controller::validate_request(cbdc::buffer buf,
-                                      cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback cb)
-        -> bool {
+    auto controller::validate_request(
+        cbdc::buffer request,
+        const cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback& cb) -> bool {
         auto maybe_req
-            = cbdc::from_buffer<cbdc::rpc::request<rpc::request>>(buf);
+            = cbdc::from_buffer<cbdc::rpc::request<rpc::request>>(request);
         auto valid = true;
         if(maybe_req) {
             valid = std::visit(
@@ -208,7 +220,7 @@ namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
             valid = false;
         }
 
-        cb(std::move(buf), valid);
+        cb(std::move(request), valid);
         return true;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.hpp b/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.hpp
index 50e0c9bbe..28a5faef3 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.hpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/locking_shard/controller.hpp
@@ -26,9 +26,10 @@ namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
         /// \param logger log to use for output.
         controller(size_t shard_id,
                    size_t node_id,
-                   const cbdc::config::options& opts,
+                   cbdc::config::options opts,
                    std::shared_ptr<logging::log> logger);
-        ~controller() = default;
+
+        ~controller();
 
         controller() = delete;
         controller(const controller&) = delete;
@@ -48,7 +49,8 @@ namespace cbdc::locking_shard {
                            nuraft::cb_func::Param* param)
             -> nuraft::cb_func::ReturnCode;
         auto validate_request(cbdc::buffer request,
-                              cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback cb) -> bool;
+                              const cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback& cb)
+            -> bool;
 
         auto enqueue_validation(cbdc::buffer request,
                                 cbdc::raft::rpc::validation_callback cb)
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.cpp b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.cpp
index 24614d969..51360b164 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.cpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.cpp
@@ -111,19 +111,23 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
         return true;
     }
 
+    controller::~controller() {
+        stop();
+    }
+
     void controller::validation_worker() {
         while(m_running) {
             auto v = queued_validation();
             if(m_validation_queue.pop(v)) {
                 auto [tx, cb] = v;
-                cb(std::move(tx), transaction::validation::check_tx(tx));
+                cb(tx, transaction::validation::check_tx(tx));
             }
         }
     }
 
     auto controller::validate_tx(const transaction::full_tx& tx,
                                  validation_callback cb) -> bool {
-        m_validation_queue.push({std::move(tx), std::move(cb)});
+        m_validation_queue.push({tx, std::move(cb)});
         return true;
     }
 
@@ -133,14 +137,14 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
             if(m_attestation_queue.pop(v)) {
                 auto [tx, cb] = v;
                 auto compact_tx = cbdc::transaction::compact_tx(tx);
-                cb(std::move(tx), compact_tx.sign(m_secp.get(), m_privkey));
+                cb(tx, compact_tx.sign(m_secp.get(), m_privkey));
             }
         }
     }
 
     auto controller::attest_tx(const transaction::full_tx& tx,
                                attestation_callback cb) -> bool {
-        m_attestation_queue.push({std::move(tx), std::move(cb)});
+        m_attestation_queue.push({tx, std::move(cb)});
         return true;
     }
 
@@ -148,7 +152,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
         transaction::full_tx tx,
         execute_result_callback_type result_callback) -> bool {
         return controller::validate_tx(
-            std::move(tx),
+            tx,
             [&, result_callback](
                 const transaction::full_tx& tx2,
                 std::optional<cbdc::transaction::validation::tx_error> err) {
@@ -166,10 +170,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
                 }
 
                 auto compact_tx = cbdc::transaction::compact_tx(tx2);
-                gather_attestations(std::move(tx2),
-                                    std::move(result_callback),
-                                    compact_tx,
-                                    {});
+                gather_attestations(tx2, result_callback, compact_tx, {});
                 return;
             });
     }
@@ -194,7 +195,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
         transaction::full_tx tx,
         validate_result_callback_type result_callback) -> bool {
         return controller::validate_tx(
-            std::move(tx),
+            tx,
             [&, result_callback](
                 const transaction::full_tx& tx2,
                 std::optional<cbdc::transaction::validation::tx_error> err) {
@@ -203,7 +204,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
                     return;
                 }
                 controller::attest_tx(
-                    std::move(tx2),
+                    tx2,
                     [&, result_callback](
                         const transaction::full_tx& /* tx3 */,
                         std::optional<cbdc::sentinel::validate_response> res) {
@@ -233,17 +234,24 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
 
     void controller::stop() {
         m_running = false;
+        m_rpc_server.reset();
+
+        m_validation_queue.clear();
+        m_attestation_queue.clear();
+
         for(auto& t : m_validation_threads) {
             if(t.joinable()) {
                 t.join();
             }
         }
+        m_validation_threads.clear();
 
         for(auto& t : m_attestation_threads) {
             if(t.joinable()) {
                 t.join();
             }
         }
+        m_attestation_threads.clear();
     }
 
     void controller::gather_attestations(
@@ -252,10 +260,10 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
         const transaction::compact_tx& ctx,
         std::unordered_set<size_t> requested) {
         if(ctx.m_attestations.size() < m_opts.m_attestation_threshold) {
-            if(ctx.m_attestations.size() == 0) {
+            if(ctx.m_attestations.empty()) {
                 // Self-attest first
                 controller::attest_tx(
-                    std::move(tx),
+                    tx,
                     [&, ctx, result_callback](const transaction::full_tx& tx2,
                                               validate_result res) {
                         validate_result_handler(res,
@@ -297,7 +305,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
     void
     controller::send_compact_tx(const transaction::compact_tx& ctx,
                                 execute_result_callback_type result_callback) {
-        auto cb = [&, this, ctx, res_cb = std::move(result_callback)](
+        auto cb = [&, ctx, res_cb = std::move(result_callback)](
                       std::optional<bool> res) {
             result_handler(res, res_cb);
         };
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.hpp b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.hpp
index 7d059a703..890158a61 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.hpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/controller.hpp
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel_2pc {
                    const config::options& opts,
                    std::shared_ptr<logging::log> logger);
 
-        ~controller() override = default;
+        ~controller() override;
 
         /// Initializes the controller. Connects to the shard coordinator
         /// network and launches a server thread for external clients.
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.cpp b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.cpp
index f8f8abd99..ad2736508 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.cpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.cpp
@@ -17,18 +17,20 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel::rpc {
         m_srv->register_handler_callback(
             [&](const request& req,
                 async_interface::result_callback_type callback) {
-                auto req_item = request_queue_t{req, callback};
+                auto req_item = request_queue_t{req, std::move(callback)};
                 m_request_queue.push(req_item);
                 return true;
             });
     }
-    bool operator<(const request_queue_t& a, const request_queue_t& b) {
+    auto operator<(const request_queue_t& a, const request_queue_t& b)
+        -> bool {
         // Prioritize validate requests over execute requests
         return (std::holds_alternative<validate_request>(a.m_req)
                 && std::holds_alternative<execute_request>(b.m_req));
     }
     async_server::~async_server() {
         m_running = false;
+        m_request_queue.clear();
         if(m_processing_thread.joinable()) {
             m_processing_thread.join();
         }
diff --git a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.hpp b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.hpp
index ffd676f63..5efad9ca9 100644
--- a/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.hpp
+++ b/src/uhs/twophase/sentinel_2pc/server.hpp
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel::rpc {
         async_interface::result_callback_type m_cb;
     };
 
-    bool operator<(const request_queue_t& a, const request_queue_t& b);
+    auto operator<(const request_queue_t& a, const request_queue_t& b) -> bool;
     /// Asynchronous RPC server for a sentinel.
     class async_server {
       public:
@@ -33,6 +33,10 @@ namespace cbdc::sentinel::rpc {
             std::unique_ptr<cbdc::rpc::async_server<request, response>> srv);
 
         ~async_server();
+        async_server(async_server&&) noexcept = delete;
+        auto operator=(async_server&&) noexcept -> async_server& = delete;
+        async_server(const async_server&) = delete;
+        auto operator=(const async_server&) -> async_server& = delete;
 
       private:
         void process();
diff --git a/src/util/raft/rpc_server.hpp b/src/util/raft/rpc_server.hpp
index 879ec0f1e..70420168f 100644
--- a/src/util/raft/rpc_server.hpp
+++ b/src/util/raft/rpc_server.hpp
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ namespace cbdc::raft::rpc {
         /// \param impl pointer to the raft node.
         /// \see cbdc::rpc::server
         void register_raft_node(std::shared_ptr<node> impl) {
-            register_raft_node(impl, std::nullopt);
+            register_raft_node(std::move(impl), std::nullopt);
         }
 
         /// Registers the raft node whose state machine handles RPC requests
@@ -42,10 +42,11 @@ namespace cbdc::raft::rpc {
             if(validate.has_value()) {
                 m_validate_func = std::move(validate.value());
             } else {
-                m_validate_func = [&](buffer b, validation_callback cb) {
-                    cb(std::move(b), true);
-                    return true;
-                };
+                m_validate_func
+                    = [&](buffer b, const validation_callback& cb) {
+                          cb(std::move(b), true);
+                          return true;
+                      };
             }
             cbdc::rpc::raw_async_server::register_handler_callback(
                 [&](buffer req, response_callback_type resp_cb) {
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ namespace cbdc::raft::rpc {
 
                     auto success = m_impl->replicate(
                         new_log,
-                        [&, resp_cb = std::move(res_cb), req_buf = new_log](
+                        [&, resp_cb = res_cb, req_buf = new_log](
                             result_type& r,
                             nuraft::ptr<std::exception>& err) {
                             if(err) {
diff --git a/tests/unit/sentinel_2pc/controller_test.cpp b/tests/unit/sentinel_2pc/controller_test.cpp
index 4a35b6bf5..8513cfeeb 100644
--- a/tests/unit/sentinel_2pc/controller_test.cpp
+++ b/tests/unit/sentinel_2pc/controller_test.cpp
@@ -99,6 +99,10 @@ class sentinel_2pc_test : public ::testing::Test {
     std::unique_ptr<cbdc::sentinel_2pc::controller> m_ctl;
     cbdc::transaction::full_tx m_valid_tx{};
     std::shared_ptr<cbdc::logging::log> m_logger;
+    std::unique_ptr<secp256k1_context, decltype(&secp256k1_context_destroy)>
+        m_secp{secp256k1_context_create(SECP256K1_CONTEXT_SIGN
+                                        | SECP256K1_CONTEXT_VERIFY),
+               &secp256k1_context_destroy};
 };
 
 TEST_F(sentinel_2pc_test, test_init) {
@@ -170,17 +174,14 @@ TEST_F(sentinel_2pc_test, digest_valid_transaction_network) {
 TEST_F(sentinel_2pc_test, tx_validation_test) {
     ASSERT_TRUE(m_ctl->init());
     auto ctx = cbdc::transaction::compact_tx(m_valid_tx);
-    auto secp = std::unique_ptr<secp256k1_context,
-                                decltype(&secp256k1_context_destroy)>{
-        secp256k1_context_create(SECP256K1_CONTEXT_SIGN
-                                 | SECP256K1_CONTEXT_VERIFY),
-        &secp256k1_context_destroy};
     auto res
         = m_ctl->validate_transaction(m_valid_tx, [&](auto validation_res) {
               ASSERT_TRUE(validation_res.has_value());
-              ASSERT_TRUE(ctx.verify(secp.get(), validation_res.value()));
+              ASSERT_TRUE(ctx.verify(m_secp.get(), validation_res.value()));
           });
     ASSERT_TRUE(res);
+    // ensures the validation callback has completed before we go out-of-scope
+    m_ctl->stop();
 }
 
 TEST_F(sentinel_2pc_test, bad_coordinator_endpoint) {