references.bib

@article{Ahlqvist2018,
  title = {Novel Subgroups of Adult-Onset Diabetes and Their Association with Outcomes: A Data-Driven Cluster Analysis of Six Variables},
  shorttitle = {Novel Subgroups of Adult-Onset Diabetes and Their Association with Outcomes},
  author = {Ahlqvist, Emma and Storm, Petter and K{\"a}r{\"a}j{\"a}m{\"a}ki, Annemari and Martinell, Mats and Dorkhan, Mozhgan and Carlsson, Annelie and Vikman, Petter and Prasad, Rashmi B. and Aly, Dina Mansour and Almgren, Peter and Wessman, Ylva and Shaat, Nael and Sp{\'e}gel, Peter and Mulder, Hindrik and Lindholm, Eero and Melander, Olle and Hansson, Ola and Malmqvist, Ulf and Lernmark, {\AA}ke and Lahti, Kaj and Fors{\'e}n, Tom and Tuomi, Tiinamaija and Rosengren, Anders H. and Groop, Leif},
  year = {2018},
  month = may,
  journal = {The Lancet. Diabetes \& Endocrinology},
  volume = {6},
  number = {5},
  pages = {361--369},
  issn = {2213-8595},
  doi = {10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30051-2},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Diabetes is presently classified into two main forms, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, but type 2 diabetes in particular is highly heterogeneous. A refined classification could provide a powerful tool to individualise treatment regimens and identify individuals with increased risk of complications at diagnosis. METHODS: We did data-driven cluster analysis (k-means and hierarchical clustering) in patients with newly diagnosed diabetes (n=8980) from the Swedish All New Diabetics in Scania cohort. Clusters were based on six variables (glutamate decarboxylase antibodies, age at diagnosis, BMI, HbA1c, and homoeostatic model assessment 2 estimates of {$\beta$}-cell function and insulin resistance), and were related to prospective data from patient records on development of complications and prescription of medication. Replication was done in three independent cohorts: the Scania Diabetes Registry (n=1466), All New Diabetics in Uppsala (n=844), and Diabetes Registry Vaasa (n=3485). Cox regression and logistic regression were used to compare time to medication, time to reaching the treatment goal, and risk of diabetic complications and genetic associations. FINDINGS: We identified five replicable clusters of patients with diabetes, which had significantly different patient characteristics and risk of diabetic complications. In particular, individuals in cluster 3 (most resistant to insulin) had significantly higher risk of diabetic kidney disease than individuals in clusters 4 and 5, but had been prescribed similar diabetes treatment. Cluster 2 (insulin deficient) had the highest risk of retinopathy. In support of the clustering, genetic associations in the clusters differed from those seen in traditional type 2 diabetes. INTERPRETATION: We stratified patients into five subgroups with differing disease progression and risk of diabetic complications. This new substratification might eventually help to tailor and target early treatment to patients who would benefit most, thereby representing a first step towards precision medicine in diabetes. FUNDING: Swedish Research Council, European Research Council, Vinnova, Academy of Finland, Novo Nordisk Foundation, Scania University Hospital, Sigrid Juselius Foundation, Innovative Medicines Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking, Vasa Hospital district, Jakobstadsnejden Heart Foundation, Folkh{\"a}lsan Research Foundation, Ollqvist Foundation, and Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {29503172},
  keywords = {Adult,Cluster Analysis,Cohort Studies,Diabetes Complications,Diabetes Mellitus,Disease Progression,Female,Humans,Male,Prospective Studies,Risk Factors}
}

@article{Allender2019,
  title = {Translating Systems Thinking into Practice for Community Action on Childhood Obesity.},
  author = {Allender, Steven and Brown, Andrew D. and Bolton, Kristy A. and Fraser, Penny and Lowe, Janette and Hovmand, Peter},
  year = {2019},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity},
  volume = {20 Suppl 2},
  number = {Suppl 2},
  pages = {179--184},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1467-789X 1467-7881},
  doi = {10.1111/obr.12865},
  abstract = {We report on the first 18~months of two communities' efforts using methods inspired by community-based participatory system dynamics for the development,  implementation, and evaluation of whole of community efforts to improve the  health of children. We apply Foster-Fishman's theoretical framework for  characterizing systems change to describe the initiatives. Bounding the system  began with defining leaders more broadly than standard health interventions to be  those who had the ability to change environments to improve health, including  food retailers, government, and business, and using high-quality childhood  monitoring data to define the problem. Widespread access to junk food, barriers  to physical activity, and efforts to promote health predominantly through  programmatic approaches were identified as potential root causes. System  interactions existed in the form of relationships between stakeholder groups and  organizations. The approach described built new relationships and strengthened  existing relationships. Willingness in taking risks, changing existing practice,  and redesigning health promotion work to have a community development focus, were  levers for change. This approach has resulted in hundreds of community-led  actions focused on changing norms and environments. Insights from this approach  may be useful to support other communities in translating systems theory into  systems practice. Further empirical research is recommended to explore the  observations in this paper.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2019 The Authors Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley \& Sons Ltd on behalf of World Obesity Federation.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC6900082},
  pmid = {31359617},
  keywords = {*Systems Analysis,childhood obesity,chronic disease,community intervention,Community Participation,Health Plan Implementation,Humans,Pediatric Obesity/*prevention & control,systems thinking}
}

@article{Amadid2017,
  title = {Physical {{Activity Dimensions Associated}} with {{Impaired Glucose Metabolism}}},
  author = {Amadid, Hanan and Johansen, Nanna B. and Bjerregaard, Anne-Louise and Vistisen, Dorte and F{\ae}rch, Kristine and Brage, S{\o}ren and Lauritzen, Torsten and Witte, Daniel R. and Sandb{\ae}k, Annelli and J{\o}rgensen, Marit E.},
  year = {2017},
  month = nov,
  journal = {Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise},
  volume = {49},
  number = {11},
  pages = {2176--2184},
  issn = {1530-0315},
  doi = {10.1249/MSS.0000000000001362},
  abstract = {PURPOSE: Physical activity (PA) is important in the prevention of Type 2 diabetes, yet little is known about the role of specific dimensions of PA, including sedentary time in subgroups at risk for impaired glucose metabolism (IGM). We applied a data-driven decision tool to identify dimensions of PA associated with IGM across age, sex, and body mass index (BMI) groups. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 1501 individuals (mean (SD) age, 65.6 (6.8) yr) at high risk for Type 2 diabetes from the ADDITION-PRO study. PA was measured by an individually calibrated combined accelerometer and heart rate monitor worn for 7 d. PA energy expenditure, time spent in different activity intensities, bout duration, and sedentary time were considered determinants of IGM together with age, sex, and BMI. Decision tree analysis was applied to identify subgroup-specific dimensions of PA associated with IGM. IGM was based on oral glucose tolerance test results and defined as a fasting plasma glucose level of {$\geq$}6.1 mmol{$\cdot$}L and/or a 2-h plasma glucose level of {$\geq$}7.8 mmol{$\cdot$}L. RESULTS: Among overweight (BMI {$\geq$}25 kg{$\cdot$}m) men, accumulating less than 30 min{$\cdot$}d of moderate-to-vigorous PA was associated with IGM, whereas among overweight women, sedentary time was associated with IGM. Among individuals older than 53 yr with normal weight (BMI {$<$}25 kg{$\cdot$}m), time spent in light PA was associated with IGM. None of the dimensions of PA were associated with IGM among individuals {$\leq$}53 yr of age with normal weight. CONCLUSIONS: We identified subgroups in which different activity dimensions were associated with IGM. Methodology and results from this study may suggest a preliminary step toward the goal of tailoring and targeting PA interventions aimed at Type 2 diabetes prevention.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC5901705},
  pmid = {28692629},
  keywords = {Aged,Blood Glucose,Body Mass Index,Cross-Sectional Studies,Decision Support Techniques,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Energy Metabolism,Exercise,Female,Glucose Intolerance,Heart Rate,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Monitoring Ambulatory,Sedentary Behavior},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/U27TIGLI/Amadid e.a. - 2017 - Physical Activity Dimensions Associated with Impai.pdf}
}

@article{Aroda2015,
  title = {The Effect of Lifestyle Intervention and Metformin on Preventing or Delaying Diabetes among Women with and without Gestational Diabetes: The {{Diabetes Prevention Program}} Outcomes Study 10-Year Follow-Up},
  shorttitle = {The Effect of Lifestyle Intervention and Metformin on Preventing or Delaying Diabetes among Women with and without Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Aroda, V. R. and Christophi, C. A. and Edelstein, S. L. and Zhang, P. and Herman, W. H. and {Barrett-Connor}, E. and Delahanty, L. M. and Montez, M. G. and Ackermann, R. T. and Zhuo, X. and Knowler, W. C. and Ratner, R. E. and {Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group}},
  year = {2015},
  month = apr,
  journal = {The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism},
  volume = {100},
  number = {4},
  pages = {1646--1653},
  issn = {1945-7197},
  doi = {10.1210/jc.2014-3761},
  abstract = {CONTEXT: Gestational diabetes (GDM) confers a high risk of type 2 diabetes. In the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), intensive lifestyle (ILS) and metformin prevented or delayed diabetes in women with a history of GDM. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of ILS and metformin intervention over 10 years in women with and without a history of GDM in the DPP/Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. DESIGN: This was a randomized controlled clinical trial with an observational follow-up. SETTING: The study was conducted at 27 clinical centers. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred fifty women with a history of GDM and 1416 women with previous live births but no history of GDM participated in the study. The participants had an elevated body mass index and fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance at study entry. INTERVENTIONS: Interventions included placebo, ILS, or metformin. OUTCOMES MEASURE: Outcomes measure was diabetes mellitus. RESULTS: Over 10 years, women with a history of GDM assigned to placebo had a 48\% higher risk of developing diabetes compared with women without a history of GDM. In women with a history of GDM, ILS and metformin reduced progression to diabetes compared with placebo by 35\% and 40\%, respectively. Among women without a history of GDM, ILS reduced the progression to diabetes by 30\%, and metformin did not reduce the progression to diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: Women with a history of GDM are at an increased risk of developing diabetes. In women with a history of GDM in the DPP/Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study, both lifestyle and metformin were highly effective in reducing progression to diabetes during a 10-year follow-up period. Among women without a history of GDM, lifestyle but not metformin reduced progression to diabetes.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC4399293},
  pmid = {25706240},
  keywords = {Adult,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents,Incidence,Life Style,Metformin,Middle Aged,Pregnancy,Risk Reduction Behavior,Time Factors,Treatment Outcome},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/3T728IXK/Aroda e.a. - 2015 - The effect of lifestyle intervention and metformin.pdf}
}

@article{Bjerregaard2018,
  title = {Relative Validity of a Web-Based Food Frequency Questionnaire for {{Danish}} Adolescents},
  author = {Bjerregaard, Anne A. and Halldorsson, Thorhallur I. and Kampmann, Freja B. and Olsen, Sjurdur F. and Tetens, Inge},
  year = {2018},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Nutrition Journal},
  volume = {17},
  number = {1},
  pages = {9},
  issn = {1475-2891},
  doi = {10.1186/s12937-018-0312-7},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: With increased focus on dietary intake among youth and risk of diseases later in life, it is of importance, prior to assessing diet-disease relationships, to examine the validity of the dietary assessment tool. This study's objective was to evaluate the relative validity of a self-administered web-based FFQ among Danish children aged 12 to 15~years. METHODS: From a nested sub-cohort within the Danish National Birth Cohort, 124 adolescents participated. Four weeks after completion of the FFQ, adolescents were invited to complete three telephone-based 24HRs; administered 4 weeks apart. Mean or median intakes of nutrients and food groups estimated from the FFQ were compared with the mean of 3x24HRs. To assess the level of ranking we calculated the proportion of correctly classified into the same quartile, and the proportion of misclassified (into the opposite quartile). Spearman's correlation coefficients and de-attenuated coefficients were calculated to assess agreement between the FFQ and 24HRs. RESULTS: The mean percentage of all food groups, for adolescents classified into the same and opposite quartile was 35 and 7.5\%, respectively. Mean Spearman's correlation was 0.28 for food groups and 0.35 for nutrients, respectively. Adjustment for energy and within-person variation in the 24HRs had little effect on the magnitude of the correlations for food groups and nutrients. We found overestimation by the FFQ compared with the 24HRs for fish, fruits, vegetables, oils and dressing and underestimation by the FFQ for meat/poultry and sweets. Median intake of beverages, dairy, bread, cereals, the mean total energy and carbohydrate intake did not differ significantly between the two methods. CONCLUSION: The relative validity of the FFQ compared with the 3x24HRs showed that the ranking ability differed across food groups and nutrients with best ranking for estimated intake of dairy, fruits, and oils and dressing. Larger variation was observed for fish, sweets and vegetables. For nutrients, the ranking ability was acceptable for fatty acids and iron. When evaluating estimates from the FFQ among Danish adolescents these findings should be considered.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC5767066},
  pmid = {29329542},
  keywords = {Adolescent,Cohort Studies,Cohort study,Denmark,Diet,Diet recall,Diet Records,Diet Surveys,Dietary assessment,Dietary intake,Female,Food groups,Humans,Internet,Male,Nutrients,Nutrition Assessment,Reproducibility of Results,School-age children,Surveys and Questionnaires},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/FQUQ4RVF/Bjerregaard e.a. - 2018 - Relative validity of a web-based food frequency qu.pdf}
}

@article{Carstensen2020,
  title = {Prevalence, Incidence and Mortality of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes in {{Denmark}} 1996-2016.},
  author = {Carstensen, Bendix and R{\o}nn, Pernille Falberg and J{\o}rgensen, Marit Eika},
  year = {2020},
  month = may,
  journal = {BMJ open diabetes research \& care},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  address = {England},
  issn = {2052-4897},
  doi = {10.1136/bmjdrc-2019-001071},
  abstract = {INTRODUCTION: The objective of this study was to give an overview of prevalence, incidence and mortality of type 1 (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in Denmark, and  their temporal trends. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We constructed a diabetes  register from existing population-based healthcare registers, including a  classification of patients as T1D or T2D, with coverage from 1996 to 2016. Using  complete population records for Denmark, we derived prevalence, incidence,  mortality and standardized mortality ratio (SMR). RESULTS: The overall prevalence  of diabetes at 2016 was 0.5\% for T1D and 4.4\% for T2D, with annual increases  since 1996 of 0.5\% for T1D and 5.5\% for T2D. Incidence rates of T1D decreased by  3.5\% per year, with increase for persons under 25 years of age and a decrease for  older persons. T2D incidence increased 2.5\% per year until 2011, decreased until  2014 and increased after that, similar in all ages. The annual decrease in  mortality was 0.3\% for T1D and 2.9\% for T2D. The mortality rate ratio between T1D  and T2D was 1.9 for men and 1.6 for women. SMR decreased annually 2\% for T1D and  0.5\% for T2D. CONCLUSIONS: Incidence and prevalence of diabetes is increasing,  but mortality among patients with diabetes in Denmark is decreasing faster than  the mortality among persons without diabetes. T1D carries a 70\% higher mortality  than T2D.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC7265004},
  pmid = {32475839},
  keywords = {*Diabetes Mellitus Type 1/epidemiology,*Diabetes Mellitus Type 2/epidemiology,Aged,Denmark/epidemiology,epidemiology,Female,Humans,incidence,Incidence,Male,mortality,Prevalence,registries}
}

@article{Collins2024,
  title = {{{TRIPOD}}+{{AI}} Statement: Updated Guidance for Reporting Clinical Prediction Models That Use Regression or Machine Learning Methods},
  shorttitle = {{{TRIPOD}}+{{AI}} Statement},
  author = {Collins, Gary S and Moons, Karel G M and Dhiman, Paula and Riley, Richard D and Beam, Andrew L and Van Calster, Ben and Ghassemi, Marzyeh and Liu, Xiaoxuan and Reitsma, Johannes B and Van Smeden, Maarten and Boulesteix, Anne-Laure and Camaradou, Jennifer Catherine and Celi, Leo Anthony and Denaxas, Spiros and Denniston, Alastair K and Glocker, Ben and Golub, Robert M and Harvey, Hugh and Heinze, Georg and Hoffman, Michael M and Kengne, Andr{\'e} Pascal and Lam, Emily and Lee, Naomi and Loder, Elizabeth W and {Maier-Hein}, Lena and Mateen, Bilal A and McCradden, Melissa D and {Oakden-Rayner}, Lauren and Ordish, Johan and Parnell, Richard and Rose, Sherri and Singh, Karandeep and Wynants, Laure and Logullo, Patricia},
  year = {2024},
  month = apr,
  journal = {BMJ},
  pages = {e078378},
  issn = {1756-1833},
  doi = {10.1136/bmj-2023-078378},
  urldate = {2024-06-16},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/U3Z3KZUP/Collins e.a. - 2024 - TRIPOD+AI statement updated guidance for reportin.pdf}
}

@article{Crandall2008,
  title = {The Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes.},
  author = {Crandall, Jill P. and Knowler, William C. and Kahn, Steven E. and Marrero, David and Florez, Jose C. and Bray, George A. and Haffner, Steven M. and Hoskin, Mary and Nathan, David M.},
  year = {2008},
  month = jul,
  journal = {Nature clinical practice. Endocrinology \& metabolism},
  volume = {4},
  number = {7},
  pages = {382--393},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1745-8374 1745-8366},
  doi = {10.1038/ncpendmet0843},
  abstract = {Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) affects more than 7\% of adults in the US and leads to substantial personal and economic burden. In prediabetic states insulin  secretion and action--potential targets of preventive interventions--are  impaired. In trials lifestyle modification (i.e. weight loss and exercise) has  proven effective in preventing incident T2DM in high-risk groups, although weight  loss has the greatest effect. Various medications (e.g. metformin,  thiazolidinediones and acarbose) can also prevent or delay T2DM. Whether  diabetes-prevention strategies also ultimately prevent the development of  diabetic vascular complications is unknown, but cardiovascular risk factors are  favorably affected. Preventive strategies that can be implemented in routine  clinical settings have been developed and evaluated. Widespread application has,  however, been limited by local financial considerations, even though  cost-effectiveness might be achieved at the population level.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC2573045},
  pmid = {18493227},
  keywords = {Diabetes Mellitus Type 2/*prevention & control,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents/*therapeutic use,Life Style,Prediabetic State/drug therapy/*therapy}
}

@misc{DARTER,
  title = {Steno {{Register-based Project}}: {{Interplay}} between Diabetes and Intergenerational Transmission of Health Determinants over the Life Course},
  author = {Johnston, Luke W. and Silverman, Omar and Toft, Gunnar}
}

@article{Dasgupta2015,
  title = {Gestational {{Diabetes Mellitus}} in {{Mothers}} as a {{Diabetes Predictor}} in {{Fathers}}: {{A Retrospective Cohort Analysis}}},
  shorttitle = {Gestational {{Diabetes Mellitus}} in {{Mothers}} as a {{Diabetes Predictor}} in {{Fathers}}},
  author = {Dasgupta, Kaberi and Ross, Nancy and Meltzer, Sara and Da Costa, Deborah and Nakhla, Meranda and Habel, Youssef and Rahme, Elham},
  year = {2015},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Diabetes Care},
  volume = {38},
  number = {9},
  pages = {e130-131},
  issn = {1935-5548},
  doi = {10.2337/dc15-0855},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {26116719},
  keywords = {Adult,Cohort Studies,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fathers,Female,Humans,Incidence,Mothers,Pregnancy,Prognosis,Quebec,Retrospective Studies,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/D3ZWYF6I/Dasgupta e.a. - 2015 - Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Mothers as a Diab.pdf}
}

@article{Dennis2019,
  title = {Disease Progression and Treatment Response in Data-Driven Subgroups of Type 2 Diabetes Compared with Models Based on Simple Clinical Features: An Analysis Using Clinical Trial Data},
  shorttitle = {Disease Progression and Treatment Response in Data-Driven Subgroups of Type 2 Diabetes Compared with Models Based on Simple Clinical Features},
  author = {Dennis, John M. and Shields, Beverley M. and Henley, William E. and Jones, Angus G. and Hattersley, Andrew T.},
  year = {2019},
  month = jun,
  journal = {The Lancet. Diabetes \& Endocrinology},
  volume = {7},
  number = {6},
  pages = {442--451},
  issn = {2213-8595},
  doi = {10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30087-7},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Research using data-driven cluster analysis has proposed five subgroups of diabetes with differences in diabetes progression and risk of complications. We aimed to compare the clinical utility of this subgroup-based approach for predicting patient outcomes with an alternative strategy of developing models for each outcome using simple patient characteristics. METHODS: We identified five clusters in the ADOPT trial (n=4351) using the same data-driven cluster analysis as reported by Ahlqvist and colleagues. Differences between clusters in glycaemic and renal progression were investigated and contrasted with stratification using simple continuous clinical features (age at diagnosis for glycaemic progression and baseline renal function for renal progression). We compared the effectiveness of a strategy of selecting glucose-lowering therapy using clusters with one combining simple clinical features (sex, BMI, age at diagnosis, baseline HbA1c) in an independent trial cohort (RECORD [n=4447]). FINDINGS: Clusters identified in trial data were similar to those described in the original study by Ahlqvist and colleagues. Clusters showed differences in glycaemic progression, but a model using age at diagnosis alone explained a similar amount of variation in progression. We found differences in incidence of chronic kidney disease between clusters; however, estimated glomerular filtration rate at baseline was a better predictor of time to chronic kidney disease. Clusters differed in glycaemic response, with a particular benefit for thiazolidinediones in patients in the severe insulin-resistant diabetes cluster and for sulfonylureas in patients in the mild age-related diabetes cluster. However, simple clinical features outperformed clusters to select therapy for individual patients. INTERPRETATION: The proposed data-driven clusters differ in diabetes progression and treatment response, but models that are based on simple continuous clinical features are more useful to stratify patients. This finding suggests that precision medicine in type 2 diabetes is likely to have most clinical utility if it is based on an approach of using specific phenotypic measures to predict specific outcomes, rather than assigning patients to subgroups. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC6520497},
  pmid = {31047901},
  keywords = {Clinical Trials as Topic,Cluster Analysis,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Disease Progression,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents,Metformin,Models Statistical,Sulfonylurea Compounds,Thiazolidinediones},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/A4NP9XGW/Dennis e.a. - 2019 - Disease progression and treatment response in data.pdf}
}

@article{Faerch2017,
  title = {Physical {{Activity}} and {{Improvement}} of {{Glycemia}} in {{Prediabetes}} by {{Different Diagnostic Criteria}}},
  author = {F{\ae}rch, Kristine and Witte, Daniel Rinse and Brunner, Eric John and Kivim{\"a}ki, Mika and Tab{\'a}k, Adam and J{\o}rgensen, Marit Eika and Ekelund, Ulf and Vistisen, Dorte},
  year = {2017},
  month = oct,
  journal = {The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism},
  volume = {102},
  number = {10},
  pages = {3712--3721},
  issn = {1945-7197},
  doi = {10.1210/jc.2017-00990},
  abstract = {CONTEXT: The effects of physical activity (PA) on improvement of glycemia may differ between prediabetic individuals defined by oral glucose tolerance test vs glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c). OBJECTIVE: We studied the association between PA and improvement of glycemia in individuals with prediabetes defined by glucose vs HbA1c criteria. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: From the Whitehall II study, 957 participants with prediabetes defined by isolated impaired fasting glucose (i-IFG), isolated impaired glucose tolerance (i-IGT), or both and 457 with prediabetes defined by HbA1c were included. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The associations of PA with concomitant changes in glucose-related outcomes during 5 years of follow-up were analyzed. A recursive partitioning analysis was performed to study heterogeneity in the association between baseline PA and the probability of reversion to normoglycemia. RESULTS: After 5 years of follow-up, 405 (42\%) individuals with glucose-defined prediabetes reverted to normal glucose tolerance (NGT). A 5-year increase in moderate-to-vigorous-intensity PA was associated with improvements in insulin sensitivity and {$\beta$}-cell function, but PA was not generally associated with reversion to NGT. Only among women {$\geq$}50 years with i-IFG or i-IGT, higher amounts of PA were associated with higher probability of reversion to NGT. In HbA1c-defined prediabetes, only 20 individuals (4.4\%) reverted to normoglycemia, and PA was not associated with improvement in glycemic markers. CONCLUSIONS: PA may be particularly important for reversion to normoglycemia among older women with i-IFG or i-IGT. Individuals with prediabetes identified by HbA1c have a low probability of reversion to normoglycemia, and their changes in glycemia are not related to PA.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC5630255},
  pmid = {28973497},
  keywords = {Aged,Blood Glucose,Cohort Studies,Exercise,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose Tolerance Test,Glycated Hemoglobin,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Prediabetic State},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/EGY3UZ6S/Færch e.a. - 2017 - Physical Activity and Improvement of Glycemia in P.pdf}
}

@article{Faerch2018,
  title = {Relative Contributions of Preprandial and Postprandial Glucose Exposures, Glycemic Variability, and Non-Glycemic Factors to {{HbA}} 1c in Individuals with and without Diabetes},
  author = {F{\ae}rch, Kristine and Alssema, Marjan and Mela, David J. and Borg, Rikke and Vistisen, Dorte},
  year = {2018},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Nutrition \& Diabetes},
  volume = {8},
  number = {1},
  pages = {38},
  issn = {2044-4052},
  doi = {10.1038/s41387-018-0047-8},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: There is substantial interest in dietary approaches to reducing postprandial glucose (PPG) responses, but the quantitative contribution of PPG to longer-term glycemic control (reflected in glycated hemoglobin, HbA1c) in the general population is not known. This study quantified the associations of preprandial glucose exposure, PPG exposure, and glycemic variability with HbA1c and estimated the explained variance in HbA1c in individuals with and without type 2 diabetes (T2D). SUBJECTS/METHODS: Participants in the A1c-Derived Average Glucose (ADAG) study without T2D (n = 77) or with non-insulin-treated T2D and HbA1c{$<$}6.5\% (T2DHbA1c\,{$<$}\,6.5\%, n = 63) or HbA1c\,{$\geq$}\,6.5\% (T2DHbA1c\,{$\geq$}\,6.5\%, n = 34) were included in this analysis. Indices of preprandial glucose, PPG, and glycemic variability were calculated from continuous glucose monitoring during four periods over 12 weeks prior to HbA1c measurement. In linear regression models, we estimated the associations of the glycemic exposures with HbA1c and calculated the proportion of variance in HbA1c explained by glycemic and non-glycemic factors (age, sex, body mass index, and ethnicity). RESULTS: The factors in the analysis explained 35\% of the variance in HbA1c in non-diabetic individuals, 49\% in T2DHbA1c\,{$<$}\,6.5\%, and 78\% in T2DHbA1c\,{$\geq$}\,6.5\%. In non-diabetic individuals PPG exposure was associated with HbA1c in confounder-adjusted analyses (P\,{$<$}\,0.05). In the T2DHbA1c\,{$<$}\,6.5\% group, all glycemic measures were associated with HbA1c (P\,{$<$}\,0.05); preprandial glucose and PPG accounted for 14 and 18\%, respectively, of the explained variation. In T2DHbA1c\,{$\geq$}\,6.5\%, these glycemic exposures accounted for more than 50\% of the variation in HbA1c and with equal relative contributions. CONCLUSIONS: Among the glycemic exposures, PPG exposure was most strongly predictive of HbA1c in non-diabetic individuals, suggesting that interventions targeting lowering of the PPG response may be beneficial for long-term glycemic maintenance. In T2D, preprandial glucose and PPG exposure contributed equally to HbA1c.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC5981454},
  pmid = {29855488},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Blood Glucose,Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fasting,Female,Glucose,Glycated Hemoglobin,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Postprandial Period},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/B8ZZVKBM/Færch e.a. - 2018 - Relative contributions of preprandial and postpran.pdf}
}

@article{Feig2008,
  title = {Risk of Development of Diabetes Mellitus after Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Feig, Denice S. and Zinman, Bernard and Wang, Xuesong and Hux, Janet E.},
  year = {2008},
  month = jul,
  journal = {CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne},
  volume = {179},
  number = {3},
  pages = {229--234},
  issn = {1488-2329},
  doi = {10.1503/cmaj.080012},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: It is generally appreciated that gestational diabetes is a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. However, the precise relation between these 2 conditions remains unknown. We sought to determine the incidence of diabetes mellitus after diagnosis of gestational diabetes. METHODS: We used a population-based database to identify all deliveries in the province of Ontario over the 7-year period from Apr. 1, 1995, to Mar. 31, 2002. We linked these births to mothers who had been given a diagnosis of gestational diabetes through another administrative database that records people with diabetes on the basis of either physician service claims or hospital admission records. We examined database records for these women from the time of delivery until Mar. 31, 2004, a total of 9 years. We determined the presence of diabetes mellitus according to a validated administrative database definition for this condition. RESULTS: We identified 659 164 pregnant women who had no pre-existing diabetes. Of these, 21 823 women (3.3\%) had a diagnosis of gestational diabetes. The incidence of gestational diabetes rose significantly over the 9-year study period, from 3.2\% in 1995 to 3.6\% in 2001 (p {$<$} 0.001). The probability of diabetes developing after gestational diabetes was 3.7\% at 9 months after delivery and 18.9\% at 9 years after delivery. After adjustment for age, urban or rural residence, neighbourhood income quintile, whether the woman had a previous pregnancy, whether the woman had hypertension after the index delivery, and primary care level before the index delivery, the most significant risk factor for diabetes was having had gestational diabetes during the index pregnancy (hazard ratio 37.28, 95\% confidence interval 34.99-40.88; p {$<$} 0.001). Age, urban residence and lower income were also important factors. When analyzed by year of delivery, the rate of development of diabetes was higher among the latest subcohort of women with gestational diabetes (delivery during 1999-2001) than among the earliest subcohort (delivery during 1995 or 1996) (16\% by 4.7 years after delivery v. 16\% by 9.0 years). INTERPRETATION: In this large population-based study, the rate of development of diabetes after gestational diabetes increased over time and was almost 20\% by 9 years. This estimate should be used by clinicians to assist in their counselling of pregnant women and by policy-makers to target these women for screening and prevention.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC2474881},
  pmid = {18663202},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus,Disease Progression,Female,Humans,Incidence,Mass Screening,Ontario,Pregnancy,Prognosis,Retrospective Studies,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/ZS5Y3C4Q/Feig e.a. - 2008 - Risk of development of diabetes mellitus after dia.pdf}
}

@article{Gaede2008,
  title = {Effect of a Multifactorial Intervention on Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes},
  author = {Gaede, Peter and {Lund-Andersen}, Henrik and Parving, Hans-Henrik and Pedersen, Oluf},
  year = {2008},
  month = feb,
  journal = {The New England Journal of Medicine},
  volume = {358},
  number = {6},
  pages = {580--591},
  issn = {1533-4406},
  doi = {10.1056/NEJMoa0706245},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Intensified multifactorial intervention - with tight glucose regulation and the use of renin-angiotensin system blockers, aspirin, and lipid-lowering agents - has been shown to reduce the risk of nonfatal cardiovascular disease among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria. We evaluated whether this approach would have an effect on the rates of death from any cause and from cardiovascular causes. METHODS: In the Steno-2 Study, we randomly assigned 160 patients with type 2 diabetes and persistent microalbuminuria to receive either intensive therapy or conventional therapy; the mean treatment period was 7.8 years. Patients were subsequently followed observationally for a mean of 5.5 years, until December 31, 2006. The primary end point at 13.3 years of follow-up was the time to death from any cause. RESULTS: Twenty-four patients in the intensive-therapy group died, as compared with 40 in the conventional-therapy group (hazard ratio, 0.54; 95\% confidence interval [CI], 0.32 to 0.89; P=0.02). Intensive therapy was associated with a lower risk of death from cardiovascular causes (hazard ratio, 0.43; 95\% CI, 0.19 to 0.94; P=0.04) and of cardiovascular events (hazard ratio, 0.41; 95\% CI, 0.25 to 0.67; P{$<$}0.001). One patient in the intensive-therapy group had progression to end-stage renal disease, as compared with six patients in the conventional-therapy group (P=0.04). Fewer patients in the intensive-therapy group required retinal photocoagulation (relative risk, 0.45; 95\% CI, 0.23 to 0.86; P=0.02). Few major side effects were reported. CONCLUSIONS: In at-risk patients with type 2 diabetes, intensive intervention with multiple drug combinations and behavior modification had sustained beneficial effects with respect to vascular complications and on rates of death from any cause and from cardiovascular causes. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00320008.)},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {18256393},
  keywords = {Aged,Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors,Aspirin,Behavior Therapy,Cardiovascular Diseases,Cause of Death,Combined Modality Therapy,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Diabetic Neuropathies,Drug Therapy Combination,Follow-Up Studies,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents,Hypolipidemic Agents,Kaplan-Meier Estimate,Middle Aged,Platelet Aggregation Inhibitors,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/R5NDLNUH/Gaede e.a. - 2008 - Effect of a multifactorial intervention on mortali.pdf}
}

@article{Gearhardt2009,
  title = {Preliminary Validation of the {{Yale Food Addiction Scale}}},
  author = {Gearhardt, Ashley N. and Corbin, William R. and Brownell, Kelly D.},
  year = {2009},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Appetite},
  volume = {52},
  number = {2},
  pages = {430--436},
  issn = {1095-8304},
  doi = {10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003},
  abstract = {Previous research has found similarities between addiction to psychoactive substances and excessive food consumption. Further exploration is needed to evaluate the concept of "food addiction," as there is currently a lack of psychometrically validated measurement tools in this area. The current study represents a preliminary exploration of the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), designed to identify those exhibiting signs of addiction towards certain types of foods (e.g., high fat and high sugar). Survey data were collected from 353 respondents from a stratified random sample of young adults. In addition to the YFAS, the survey assessed eating pathology, alcohol consumption and other health behaviors. The YFAS exhibited adequate internal reliability, and showed good convergent validity with measures of similar constructs and good discriminant validity relative to related but dissimilar constructs. Additionally, the YFAS predicted binge-eating behavior above and beyond existing measures of eating pathology, demonstrating incremental validity. The YFAS is a sound tool for identifying eating patterns that are similar to behaviors seen in classic areas of addiction. Further evaluation of the scale is needed, especially due to a low response rate of 24.5\% and a non-clinical sample, but confirmation of the reliability and validity of the scale has the potential to facilitate empirical research on the concept of "food addiction".},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {19121351},
  keywords = {Adolescent,Behavior Addictive,Bulimia,Connecticut,Dietary Carbohydrates,Dietary Fats,Emotions,Feeding and Eating Disorders,Feeding Behavior,Humans,Reproducibility of Results,Students,Sucrose,Surveys and Questionnaires,Universities,Young Adult}
}

@article{Harmsen2014,
  title = {Communicating Risk Using Absolute Risk Reduction or Prolongation of Life Formats: Cluster-Randomised Trial in General Practice.},
  author = {Harmsen, Charlotte Gry and Kristiansen, Ivar S{\o}nb{\o} and Larsen, Pia Veldt and Nex{\o}e, J{\o}rgen and St{\o}vring, Henrik and {Gyrd-Hansen}, Dorte and Nielsen, Jesper Bo and Edwards, Adrian and Jarb{\o}l, Dorte Ejg},
  year = {2014},
  month = apr,
  journal = {The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners},
  volume = {64},
  number = {621},
  pages = {e199-207},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1478-5242 0960-1643},
  doi = {10.3399/bjgp14X677824},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: It is important that patients are well-informed about risks and benefits of therapies to help them decide whether to accept medical therapy.  Different numerical formats can be used in risk communication but It remains  unclear how the different formats affect decisions made by real-life patients.  AIM: To compare the impact of using Prolongation Of Life (POL) and Absolute Risk  Reduction (ARR) information formats to express effectiveness of  cholesterol-lowering therapy on patients' redemptions of statin prescriptions,  and on patients' confidence in their decision and satisfaction with the risk  communication. DESIGN AND SETTING: Cluster-randomised clinical trial in general  practices. Thirty-four Danish GPs from 23 practices participated in a primary  care-based clinical trial concerning use of quantitative effectiveness formats  for risk communication in health prevention consultations. METHOD: GPs were  cluster-randomised (treating practices as clusters) to inform patients about  cardiovascular mortality risk and the effectiveness of statin treatment using  either POL or ARR formats. Patients' redemptions of statin prescriptions were  obtained from a regional prescription database. The COMRADE questionnaire was  used to measure patients' confidence in their decision and satisfaction with the  risk communication. RESULTS: Of the 240 patients included for analyses, 112 were  allocated to POL information and 128 to ARR. Patients redeeming a statin  prescription totalled six (5.4\%) when informed using POL, and 32 (25.0\%) when  using ARR. The level of confidence in decision and satisfaction with risk  communication did not differ between the risk formats. CONCLUSION: Patients  redeemed statin prescriptions less often when their GP communicated treatment  effectiveness using POL compared with ARR.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC3964454},
  pmid = {24686884},
  keywords = {*Life Support Care,*Numbers Needed To Treat,Adult,Aged,cardiovascular disease,Cardiovascular Diseases/*prevention & control,Cluster Analysis,decision making,Denmark,Female,general practice,General Practice,Humans,Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/*therapeutic use,Hypercholesterolemia/*drug therapy,Male,Middle Aged,patient participation,Prospective Studies,risk assessment,Risk Assessment,risk communication,Surveys and Questionnaires}
}

@article{Hong2016,
  title = {Identification of Impaired Fasting Glucose, Healthcare Utilization and Progression to Diabetes in the {{UK}} Using the {{Clinical Practice Research Datalink}} ({{CPRD}})},
  author = {Hong, Jin-Liern and McNeill, Ann Marie and He, Jinghua and Chen, Yong and Brodovicz, Kimberly G.},
  year = {2016},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety},
  volume = {25},
  number = {12},
  pages = {1375--1386},
  issn = {1099-1557},
  doi = {10.1002/pds.4007},
  abstract = {PURPOSE: Few studies have examined patients with prediabetes in usual, "real-world" clinical practice settings. Among patients with impaired fasting glucose (IFG), we aimed to describe the rates of progression to diabetes and to examine the long-term reduction in diabetes risk associated with regression to normoglycemia at 1\,year. METHODS: The UK-based study included 120\,055 non-diabetic patients in Clinical Practice Research Datalink from 2001 to 2012 aged 25+ years and with {$\geq$}1 fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test between {$\geq$}6.1 and {$<$}7.0\,mmol/l indicating IFG who were followed for progression to diabetes. In a subgroup of 45\,167 patients with IFG with subsequent FPG results 1\,year later, we assessed the 1-year glycemic status change and estimated the relative hazard of diabetes comparing patients with regression to normoglycemia (IFG-normoglycemia) to those who remained in IFG (IFG-IFG) using a multivariable Cox model. RESULTS: Among patients with IFG with over 414\,649 person-years of follow-up, 52\% received a subsequent FPG test, and 10\% developed diabetes within 1\,year after recognition of IFG. The incidence rate of diabetes was 5.86 (95\% CI: 5.78 to 5.93) per 100 person-years. In the subgroup analysis, 31\% of these patients remained in IFG, while 53\% and 16\% converted to normoglycemia or diabetes, respectively. The adjusted hazard ratio of developing diabetes was 0.33 (95\% CI: 0.31 to 0.35) comparing IFG-normoglycemia to IFG-IFG. CONCLUSIONS: IFG is a high-risk state for diabetes. Regression to normoglycemia from IFG strongly reduces the long-term risk of developing diabetes. Our study also shows the feasibility of identifying patients with IFG in the Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Copyright {\copyright} 2016 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {27193175},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Aged 80 and over,Blood Glucose,Clinical Practice Research Datalink,Cohort Studies,Databases Factual,diabetes,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Disease Progression,Fasting,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,impaired fasting glucose,Male,Middle Aged,Patient Acceptance of Health Care,pharmacoepidemiology,prediabetes,Prediabetic State,Retrospective Studies,Time Factors,United Kingdom}
}

@book{Hovmand2014,
  title = {Community Based Systems Dynamics},
  author = {Hovmand, P},
  year = {2014},
  edition = {1. ed.},
  publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
  address = {New York}
}

@article{Hulman2017,
  title = {Heterogeneity in Glucose Response Curves during an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Associated Cardiometabolic Risk},
  author = {Hulman, Adam and Simmons, Rebecca K. and Vistisen, Dorte and Tab{\'a}k, Adam G. and Dekker, Jacqueline M. and Alssema, Marjan and Rutters, Femke and Koopman, Anitra D. M. and Solomon, Thomas P. J. and Kirwan, John P. and Hansen, Torben and Jonsson, Anna and Gjesing, Anette Prior and Eiberg, Hans and Astrup, Arne and Pedersen, Oluf and S{\o}rensen, Thorkild I. A. and Witte, Daniel R. and F{\ae}rch, Kristine},
  year = {2017},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Endocrine},
  volume = {55},
  number = {2},
  pages = {427--434},
  issn = {1559-0100},
  doi = {10.1007/s12020-016-1126-z},
  abstract = {We aimed to examine heterogeneity in glucose response curves during an oral glucose tolerance test with multiple measurements and to compare cardiometabolic risk profiles between identified glucose response curve groups. We analyzed data from 1,267 individuals without diabetes from five studies in Denmark, the Netherlands and the USA. Each study included between 5 and 11 measurements at different time points during a 2-h oral glucose tolerance test, resulting in 9,602 plasma glucose measurements. Latent class trajectories with a cubic specification for time were fitted to identify different patterns of plasma glucose change during the oral glucose tolerance test. Cardiometabolic risk factor profiles were compared between the identified groups. Using latent class trajectory analysis, five glucose response curves were identified. Despite similar fasting and 2-h values, glucose peaks and peak times varied greatly between groups, ranging from 7-12\,mmol/L, and 35-70\,min. The group with the lowest and earliest plasma glucose peak had the lowest estimated cardiovascular risk, while the group with the most delayed plasma glucose peak and the highest 2-h value had the highest estimated risk. One group, with normal fasting and 2-h values, exhibited an unusual profile, with the highest glucose peak and the highest proportion of smokers and men. The heterogeneity in glucose response curves and the distinct cardiometabolic risk profiles may reflect different underlying physiologies. Our results warrant more detailed studies to identify the source of the heterogeneity across the different phenotypes and whether these differences play a role in the development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {27699707},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Cardiometabolic risk,Denmark,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fasting,Female,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose response curve,Glucose Tolerance Test,Glycated Hemoglobin,Humans,Latent class trajectory analysis,Male,Middle Aged,Netherlands,Oral glucose tolerance test,Sex Factors,United States},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/DL9PFULT/Hulman e.a. - 2017 - Heterogeneity in glucose response curves during an.pdf}
}

@article{Hulman2018,
  title = {Glucose Patterns during an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Associations with Future Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease and All-Cause Mortality Rate},
  author = {Hulman, Adam and Vistisen, Dorte and Gl{\"u}mer, Charlotte and Bergman, Michael and Witte, Daniel R. and F{\ae}rch, Kristine},
  year = {2018},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Diabetologia},
  volume = {61},
  number = {1},
  pages = {101--107},
  issn = {1432-0428},
  doi = {10.1007/s00125-017-4468-z},
  abstract = {AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: In addition to blood glucose concentrations measured in the fasting state and 2~h after an OGTT, intermediate measures during an OGTT may provide additional information regarding a person's risk of future diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD). First, we aimed to characterise heterogeneity of glycaemic patterns based on three time points during an OGTT. Second, we compared the incidences of diabetes and CVD and all-cause mortality rates among those with different patterns. METHODS: Our cohort study included 5861 participants without diabetes at baseline from the Danish Inter99 study. At baseline, all participants underwent an OGTT with measurements of plasma glucose levels at 0, 30 and 120~min. Latent class mixed-effects models were fitted to identify distinct patterns of glycaemic response during the OGTT. Information regarding incident diabetes, CVD and all-cause mortality rates during a median follow-up time of 11, 12 and 13~years, respectively, was extracted from national registers. Cox proportional hazard models with adjustment for several cardiometabolic risk factors were used to compare the risk of diabetes, CVD and all-cause mortality among individuals in the different latent classes. RESULTS: Four distinct glucose patterns during the OGTT were identified. One pattern was characterised by high 30~min but low 2~h glucose values. Participants with this pattern had an increased risk of developing diabetes compared with participants with lower 30~min and 2~h glucose levels (HR 4.1 [95\% CI 2.2, 7.6]) and participants with higher 2~h but lower 30~min glucose levels (HR 1.5 [95\% CI 1.0, 2.2]). Furthermore, the all-cause mortality rate differed between the groups with significantly higher rates in the two groups with elevated 30~min glucose. Only small non-significant differences in risk of future CVD were observed across latent classes after confounder adjustment. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Elevated 30~min glucose is associated with increased risk of diabetes and all-cause mortality rate independent of fasting and 2~h glucose levels. Therefore, subgroups at high risk may not be revealed when considering only fasting and 2~h glucose levels during an OGTT.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {28983719},
  keywords = {30minute post-OGTT glucose,Blood Glucose,Cardiovascular disease,Cardiovascular Diseases,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fasting,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,Latent class modelling,Mortality,Oral glucose tolerance test,Plasma glucose curve,Proportional Hazards Models,Type 2 diabetes},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/88E2IA4S/Hulman e.a. - 2018 - Glucose patterns during an oral glucose tolerance .pdf}
}

@article{Hulman2018a,
  title = {Pathophysiological {{Characteristics Underlying Different Glucose Response Curves}}: {{A Latent Class Trajectory Analysis From}} the {{Prospective EGIR-RISC Study}}},
  shorttitle = {Pathophysiological {{Characteristics Underlying Different Glucose Response Curves}}},
  author = {Hulman, Adam and Witte, Daniel R. and Vistisen, Dorte and Balkau, Beverley and Dekker, Jacqueline M. and Herder, Christian and Hatunic, Mensud and Konrad, Thomas and F{\ae}rch, Kristine and Manco, Melania},
  year = {2018},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Diabetes Care},
  volume = {41},
  number = {8},
  pages = {1740--1748},
  issn = {1935-5548},
  doi = {10.2337/dc18-0279},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: Glucose measurements during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) are useful in predicting diabetes and its complications. However, knowledge of the pathophysiology underlying differences in glucose curve shapes is sparse. We examined the pathophysiological characteristics that create different glucose curve patterns and studied their stability and reproducibility over 3 years of follow-up. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed data from participants without diabetes from the observational cohort from the European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance: Relationship between Insulin Sensitivity and Cardiovascular Disease study; participants had a five-time point OGTT at baseline (n = 1,443) and after 3 years (n = 1,045). Measures of insulin sensitivity and secretion were assessed at baseline with a euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp and intravenous glucose tolerance test. Heterogeneous glucose response patterns during the OGTT were identified using latent class trajectory analysis at baseline and at follow-up. Transitions between classes were analyzed with multinomial logistic regression models. RESULTS: We identified four different glucose response patterns, which differed with regard to insulin sensitivity and acute insulin response, obesity, and plasma levels of lipids and inflammatory markers. Some of these associations were confirmed prospectively. Time to glucose peak was driven mainly by insulin sensitivity, whereas glucose peak size was related to both insulin sensitivity and secretion. The glucose patterns identified at follow-up were similar to those at baseline, suggesting that the latent class method is robust. We integrated our classification model into an easy-to-use online application that facilitates the assessment of glucose curve patterns for other studies. CONCLUSIONS: The latent class analysis approach is a pathophysiologically insightful way to classify individuals without diabetes based on their response to glucose during an OGTT.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {29853473},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Cohort Studies,Cross-Sectional Studies,Disease Progression,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glucose Clamp Technique,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,Insulin,Insulin Resistance,Male,Middle Aged,Prediabetic State,Reproducibility of Results},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/38QP9A2L/Hulman e.a. - 2018 - Pathophysiological Characteristics Underlying Diff.pdf}
}

@article{Hulman2021,
  title = {Towards Precision Medicine in Diabetes? {{A}} Critical Review of Glucotypes},
  shorttitle = {Towards Precision Medicine in Diabetes?},
  author = {Hulman, Adam and Foreman, Yuri D. and Brouwers, Martijn C. G. J. and Kroon, Abraham A. and Reesink, Koen D. and Dagnelie, Pieter C. and {van der Kallen}, Carla J. H. and van Greevenbroek, Marleen M. J. and F{\ae}rch, Kristine and Vistisen, Dorte and J{\o}rgensen, Marit E. and Stehouwer, Coen D. A. and Witte, Daniel R.},
  year = {2021},
  month = mar,
  journal = {PLoS biology},
  volume = {19},
  number = {3},
  pages = {e3000890},
  issn = {1545-7885},
  doi = {10.1371/journal.pbio.3000890},
  abstract = {In response to a study previously published in PLOS Biology, this Formal Comment thoroughly examines the concept of 'glucotypes' with regard to its generalisability, interpretability and relationship to more traditional measures used to describe data from continuous glucose monitoring.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC7951846},
  pmid = {33705389},
  keywords = {Blood Glucose,Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring,Diabetes Mellitus,Humans,Precision Medicine},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/DVM65B8U/Hulman e.a. - 2021 - Towards precision medicine in diabetes A critical.pdf}
}

@article{Isaksen2023,
  title = {Validation of {{Register-Based Diabetes Classifiers}} in {{Danish Data}}.},
  author = {Isaksen, Anders Aasted and Sandb{\ae}k, Annelli and Bjerg, Lasse},
  year = {2023},
  journal = {Clinical epidemiology},
  volume = {15},
  pages = {569--581},
  address = {New Zealand},
  issn = {1179-1349},
  doi = {10.2147/CLEP.S407019},
  abstract = {PURPOSE: To validate two register-based algorithms classifying type 1 (T1D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in a general population using Danish register data.  PATIENTS AND METHODS: After linking data on prescription drug usage, hospital  diagnoses, laboratory results and diabetes-specific healthcare services from  nationwide healthcare registers, diabetes type was defined for all individuals in  Central Denmark Region age 18-74 years on 31 December 2018 according to two  distinct register-based classifiers: 1) a novel register-based diabetes  classifier incorporating diagnostic hemoglobin-A1C measurements, the Open-Source  Diabetes Classifier (OSDC), and 2) an existing Danish diabetes classifier, the  Register for Selected Chronic Diseases (RSCD). These classifications were  validated against self-reported data from the Health in Central Denmark survey -  overall and stratified by age at onset of diabetes. The source-code of both  classifiers was made available in the open-source R package osdc. RESULTS: A  total of 2633 (9.0\%) of 29,391 respondents reported having any type of diabetes,  divided across 410 (1.4\%) self-reported cases of T1D and 2223 (7.6\%) cases of  T2D. Among all self-reported diabetes cases, 2421 (91.9\%) were classified as  diabetes cases by both classifiers. In T1D, sensitivity of OSDC-classification  was 0.773 [95\% CI 0.730-0.813] (RSCD: 0.700 [0.653-0.744]) and positive  predictive value (PPV) 0.943 [0.913-0.966] (RSCD: 0.944 [0.912-0.967]). In T2D,  sensitivity of OSDC-classification was 0.944 [0.933-0.953] (RSCD: 0.905  [0.892-0.917]) and PPV 0.875 [0.861-0.888] (RSCD: 0.898 [0.884-0.910]). In age at  onset-stratified analyses of both classifiers, sensitivity and PPV were low in  individuals with T1D onset after age 40 and T2D onset before age 40. CONCLUSION:  Both register-based classifiers identified valid populations of T1D and T2D in a  general population, but sensitivity was substantially higher in OSDC compared to  RSCD. Register-classified diabetes type in cases with atypical age at onset of  diabetes should be interpreted with caution. The validated, open-source  classifiers provide robust and transparent tools for researchers.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2023 Isaksen et al.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC10167973},
  pmid = {37180566},
  keywords = {classification,open-source,population-based,type 1 diabetes,type 2 diabetes}
}

@article{Johansen2012,
  title = {Protocol for {{ADDITION-PRO}}: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of the Cardiovascular Experience of Individuals at High Risk for Diabetes Recruited from {{Danish}} Primary Care},
  shorttitle = {Protocol for {{ADDITION-PRO}}},
  author = {Johansen, Nanna B. and Hansen, Anne-Louise S. and Jensen, Troels M. and Philipsen, Annelotte and Rasmussen, Signe S. and J{\o}rgensen, Marit E. and Simmons, Rebecca K. and Lauritzen, Torsten and Sandb{\ae}k, Annelli and Witte, Daniel R.},
  year = {2012},
  month = dec,
  journal = {BMC public health},
  volume = {12},
  pages = {1078},
  issn = {1471-2458},
  doi = {10.1186/1471-2458-12-1078},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Screening programmes for type 2 diabetes inevitably find more individuals at high risk for diabetes than people with undiagnosed prevalent disease. While well established guidelines for the treatment of diabetes exist, less is known about treatment or prevention strategies for individuals found at high risk following screening. In order to make better use of the opportunities for primary prevention of diabetes and its complications among this high risk group, it is important to quantify diabetes progression rates and to examine the development of early markers of cardiovascular disease and microvascular diabetic complications. We also require a better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie and drive early changes in cardiometabolic physiology. The ADDITION-PRO study was designed to address these issues among individuals at different levels of diabetes risk recruited from Danish primary care. METHODS/DESIGN: ADDITION-PRO is a population-based, longitudinal cohort study of individuals at high risk for diabetes. 16,136 eligible individuals were identified at high risk following participation in a stepwise screening programme in Danish general practice between 2001 and 2006. All individuals with impaired glucose regulation at screening, those who developed diabetes following screening, and a random sub-sample of those at lower levels of diabetes risk were invited to attend a follow-up health assessment in 2009-2011 (n=4,188), of whom 2,082 (50\%) attended. The health assessment included detailed measurement of anthropometry, body composition, biochemistry, physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors including aortic stiffness and central blood pressure. All ADDITION-PRO participants are being followed for incident cardiovascular disease and death. DISCUSSION: The ADDITION-PRO study is designed to increase understanding of cardiovascular risk and its underlying mechanisms among individuals at high risk of diabetes. Key features of this study include (i) a carefully characterised cohort at different levels of diabetes risk; (ii) detailed measurement of cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors; (iii) objective measurement of physical activity behaviour; and (iv) long-term follow-up of hard clinical outcomes including mortality and cardiovascular disease. Results will inform policy recommendations concerning cardiovascular risk reduction and treatment among individuals at high risk for diabetes. The detailed phenotyping of this cohort will also allow a number of research questions concerning early changes in cardiometabolic physiology to be addressed.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC3583712},
  pmid = {23241242},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Blood Glucose,Cardiovascular Diseases,Clinical Protocols,Denmark,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Disease Progression,Fasting,Female,Glucose Intolerance,Humans,Longitudinal Studies,Male,Middle Aged,Patient Selection,Primary Health Care,Risk Assessment,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/PK57DBJI/Johansen e.a. - 2012 - Protocol for ADDITION-PRO a longitudinal cohort s.pdf}
}

@article{Johns1991,
  title = {A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness: The {{Epworth}} Sleepiness Scale},
  shorttitle = {A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness},
  author = {Johns, M. W.},
  year = {1991},
  month = dec,
  journal = {Sleep},
  volume = {14},
  number = {6},
  pages = {540--545},
  issn = {0161-8105},
  doi = {10.1093/sleep/14.6.540},
  abstract = {The development and use of a new scale, the Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS), is described. This is a simple, self-administered questionnaire which is shown to provide a measurement of the subject's general level of daytime sleepiness. One hundred and eighty adults answered the ESS, including 30 normal men and women as controls and 150 patients with a range of sleep disorders. They rated the chances that they would doze off or fall asleep when in eight different situations commonly encountered in daily life. Total ESS scores significantly distinguished normal subjects from patients in various diagnostic groups including obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia. ESS scores were significantly correlated with sleep latency measured during the multiple sleep latency test and during overnight polysomnography. In patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome ESS scores were significantly correlated with the respiratory disturbance index and the minimum SaO2 recorded overnight. ESS scores of patients who simply snored did not differ from controls.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {1798888},
  keywords = {Adult,Arousal,Circadian Rhythm,Disorders of Excessive Somnolence,Female,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Narcolepsy,Psychometrics,Restless Legs Syndrome,Sleep Apnea Syndromes,Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders,Sleep Wake Disorders,Snoring,Wakefulness},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/QABYJ4KK/Johns - 1991 - A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness the.pdf}
}

@article{Johnston2022,
  title = {Grant {{Proposal}}: {{A}} Framework for an Open and Scalable Infrastructure for Health Data Exemplified by the {{DD2}} Initiative},
  author = {Johnston, Luke William and Kj{\ae}rgaard, Alisa Devedzic and Sandb{\ae}k, Annelli},
  year = {2022},
  publisher = {Zenodo},
  doi = {10.5281/ZENODO.6511111},
  copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International},
  keywords = {data engineering,data infrastructure,data management,data science,FAIR data,open science,research infrastructure,software engineering}
}

@article{Jorgensen2020,
  title = {Estimates of Prediabetes and Undiagnosed Type 2 Diabetes in {{Denmark}}: {{The}} End of an Epidemic or a Diagnostic Artefact?},
  author = {J{\o}rgensen, Marit Eika and Ellervik, Christina and Ekholm, Ola and Johansen, Nanna Borup and Carstensen, Bendix},
  year = {2020},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Scandinavian journal of public health},
  volume = {48},
  number = {1},
  pages = {106--112},
  address = {Sweden},
  issn = {1651-1905 1403-4948},
  doi = {10.1177/1403494818799606},
  abstract = {Background: Up-to-date information on undiagnosed type 2 diabetes and prediabetes based on current diagnostic criteria is lacking. The study aimed to model the  total numbers of people with undiagnosed type 2 diabetes and prediabetes in  Denmark based on existing population-based surveys. Methods: Two population-based  Danish studies with information on HbA(1c), date of examination, gender, age and  known type 2 diabetes were identified: the Danish General Suburban Population  Study, n = 21,205, and the Danish Health Examination Survey, n = 18,065. The  prevalence of known, undiagnosed and pre-diabetes were estimated in the Danish  General Suburban Population Study, and population-level age-specific prevalence  of known type 2 diabetes was estimated from national registers. The Danish Health  Examination Survey was included for sensitivity analysis. Combining estimates of  the survey participation rate among known type 2 diabetes patients with known  overall participation rates from the studies allowed for the correction of survey  prevalence to plausible population-level estimates of age- and gender-specific  prevalence. Results: The prevalence of known, undiagnosed and pre-diabetes was  highest among men, increasing with age with a peak at age 70. Applying the  survey-based prevalence to the entire Danish population, the estimated number  (May 2011) with undiagnosed type 2 diabetes was 60,681, corresponding to 24\% of  all type 2 diabetes cases, and 292,715 had prediabetes, about 50\% more than the  total type 2 diabetes population. Conclusions: Estimates of undiagnosed type 2  diabetes and prediabetes are dramatically lower than reported in previous studies  (60,681 vs 200,000 and 292,715 vs 750,000); however, whether this reflects a true  decrease in incidence or the change to HbA(1c)-based diagnostic criteria is not  clear.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {30222048},
  keywords = {*Epidemics,Adolescent,Adult,Aged,Aged 80 and over,Denmark/epidemiology,Diabetes mellitus,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2/*diagnosis/*epidemiology,Female,glycated haemoglobins,Glycated Hemoglobin/analysis,Health Surveys,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,prediabetic stage,Prediabetic State/*diagnosis/*epidemiology,prevalence,Prevalence,Registries,Young Adult}
}

@article{Knowler2002,
  title = {Reduction in the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes with Lifestyle Intervention or Metformin.},
  author = {Knowler, William C and {Barrett-Connor}, Elizabeth and Fowler, Sarah E and Hamman, Richard F and Lachin, John M and Walker, Elizabeth A and Nathan, David M},
  year = {2002},
  month = feb,
  journal = {The New England journal of medicine},
  volume = {346},
  number = {6},
  pages = {393--403},
  doi = {10.1056/NEJMoa012512},
  abstract = {Type 2 diabetes affects approximately 8 percent of adults in the United States. Some risk factors--elevated plasma glucose concentrations in the fasting state and after an oral glucose load, overweight, and a sedentary lifestyle--are potentially reversible. We hypothesized that modifying these factors with a lifestyle-intervention program or the administration of metformin would prevent or delay the development of diabetes.},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Blood Glucose: metabolism,Body Mass Index,Diabetes Mellitus,Double-Blind Method,Energy Intake,Exercise,Female,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents,Hypoglycemic Agents: adverse effects,Hypoglycemic Agents: therapeutic use,Incidence,Life Style,Male,Metformin,Metformin: adverse effects,Metformin: therapeutic use,Middle Aged,Patient Compliance,Risk Factors,Type 2,Type 2: epidemiology,Type 2: prevention & control,Weight Loss}
}

@article{Knudsen2024,
  title = {Clinical and {{Metabolic Characterization}} of {{Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Within}} the {{First Year Postpartum}}},
  author = {Knudsen, Laura L{\o}ftgaard and Knorr, Sine and Prange, Susanne Kastberg and Wolff, Charlotte and N{\o}rgaard, Helle and Torp, Anne Mette and Madsen, Lene Ring and Mortensen, Lene and Thomsen, Henrik Holm and S{\o}rensen, Lars Peter and Ovesen, Per Glud and Fuglsang, Jens and Kampmann, Ulla},
  year = {2024},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Journal of the Endocrine Society},
  volume = {8},
  number = {6},
  pages = {bvae044},
  issn = {2472-1972},
  doi = {10.1210/jendso/bvae044},
  urldate = {2024-06-12},
  abstract = {Abstract                            Context               Women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have an increased risk of long-term complications, including impaired glucose metabolism, type 2 diabetes (T2DM), cardiovascular disease, and obesity. In current clinical practice, a 1 size fits all approach to GDM is applied, although heterogeneity among women with GDM has been recognized.                                         Objective               To give the most adequate preventive care and postpartum (PP) guidance, we aimed to make a metabolic characterization and identify subgroups of women with previous GDM within the first year PP.                                         Methods               In this prospective cohort study, we collected data in gestational week 34-38, at 3 months, and 1 year PP on women with GDM who participated in a PP follow-up program in Central Region Denmark from April 2019 to December 2022.                                         Results               In total, 1270 women were included in the program in late pregnancy. Of the 768 women participating in either the oral glucose tolerance test 3 months PP (n = 545) or the 1-year follow-up (n = 493) or both (n = 261), 608 (79.2\%) were normoglycemic, 137 (17.8\%) had prediabetes, 20 (2.6\%) had T2DM, and 3 (.4\%) had developed T1DM. More than 40\% of the women gained weight in the first year PP compared with their pregestational weight.                                         Conclusion               Our study shows that 20.8\% of women with GDM who volunteered to participate in a clinical follow-up program developed prediabetes or diabetes (T1DM and T2DM) within the first year PP. The GDM diagnosis encompasses a heterogenetic group of women and a deeper characterization may provide an opportunity for a more personalized risk assessment to prevent the progression to T2DM.},
  copyright = {https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/ZMZ22NTN/Knudsen e.a. - 2024 - Clinical and Metabolic Characterization of Women W.pdf}
}

@article{Kramer2019,
  title = {Gestational Diabetes and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis},
  shorttitle = {Gestational Diabetes and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Women},
  author = {Kramer, Caroline K. and Campbell, Sara and Retnakaran, Ravi},
  year = {2019},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Diabetologia},
  volume = {62},
  number = {6},
  pages = {905--914},
  issn = {1432-0428},
  doi = {10.1007/s00125-019-4840-2},
  abstract = {AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Women who develop gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have an elevated lifetime risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Recently, a series of studies has suggested that women with GDM also have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, it is unclear if this risk is dependent upon the intercurrent development of type 2 diabetes. Thus, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the impact of GDM on future risk of incident CVD and to ascertain the role of type 2 diabetes in this regard. METHODS: We systematically searched the PubMed and EMBASE databases for observational studies that evaluated the association of GDM with subsequent CVD, with publication between 1 January 1950 and 30 August 2018. Two independent reviewers extracted data and the analysis was performed in accordance with Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines. RRs were calculated using a random-effects model to assess the predictive value of GDM for future cardiovascular events. To evaluate whether incident type 2 diabetes in the GDM population influenced the association with CVD, we used meta-regression models followed by sensitivity analyses restricted to women who did not develop type 2 diabetes during follow-up. RESULTS: A pooled analysis of nine studies yielded data from 5,390,591 women (101,424 cardiovascular events). Compared with those who did not have GDM, women with GDM had a twofold higher risk of future cardiovascular events (RR 1.98 [95\% CI 1.57, 2.50]). Meta-regression analysis showed that the rates of incident type 2 diabetes across the studies did not affect this risk (p\,=\,0.34). Moreover, when restricted to women who did not develop type 2 diabetes, GDM remained associated with a 56\% higher risk of future cardiovascular events (RR 1.56 [95\% CI 1.04, 2.32]). GDM conferred a 2.3-fold increased risk of cardiovascular events in the first decade postpartum (RR 2.31 [95\% CI 1.57, 3.39]). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The diagnosis of GDM identifies young women who have a twofold higher risk of cardiovascular events postpartum compared with their peers. This risk is not dependent upon intercurrent type 2 diabetes and is apparent within the first decade after pregnancy. Thus, even without progressing to type 2 diabetes, women with GDM comprise an at-risk population for CVD and hence a potential opportunity for early risk factor surveillance and risk modification.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {30843102},
  keywords = {Animals,Cardiovascular disease,Cardiovascular Diseases,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Female,Gestational diabetes,Humans,Meta-analysis,Pregnancy,Risk factors,Risk Factors,Systematic review,Type 2 diabetes,Women's health,Women's Health},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/ZISBMKXQ/Kramer e.a. - 2019 - Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascula.pdf}
}

@article{Laiteerapong2019,
  title = {The {{Legacy Effect}} in {{Type}} 2 {{Diabetes}}: {{Impact}} of {{Early Glycemic Control}} on {{Future Complications}} ({{The Diabetes}} \& {{Aging Study}})},
  shorttitle = {The {{Legacy Effect}} in {{Type}} 2 {{Diabetes}}},
  author = {Laiteerapong, Neda and Ham, Sandra A. and Gao, Yue and Moffet, Howard H. and Liu, Jennifer Y. and Huang, Elbert S. and Karter, Andrew J.},
  year = {2019},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Diabetes Care},
  volume = {42},
  number = {3},
  pages = {416--426},
  issn = {1935-5548},
  doi = {10.2337/dc17-1144},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: To examine for a legacy effect of early glycemic control on diabetic complications and death. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This cohort study of managed care patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes and 10 years of survival (1997-2013, average follow-up 13.0 years, N = 34,737) examined associations between HbA1c {$<$}6.5\% ({$<$}48 mmol/mol), 6.5\% to {$<$}7.0\% (48 to {$<$}53 mmol/mol), 7.0\% to {$<$}8.0\% (53 to {$<$}64 mmol/mol), 8.0\% to {$<$}9.0\% (64 to {$<$}75 mmol/mol), or {$\geq$}9.0\% ({$\geq$}75 mmol/mol) for various periods of early exposure (0-1, 0-2, 0-3, 0-4, 0-5, 0-6, and 0-7 years) and incident future microvascular (end-stage renal disease, advanced eye disease, amputation) and macrovascular (stroke, heart disease/failure, vascular disease) events and death, adjusting for demographics, risk factors, comorbidities, and later HbA1c. RESULTS: Compared with HbA1c {$<$}6.5\% ({$<$}48 mmol/mol) for the 0-to-1-year early exposure period, HbA1c levels {$\geq$}6.5\% ({$\geq$}48 mmol/mol) were associated with increased microvascular and macrovascular events (e.g., HbA1c 6.5\% to {$<$}7.0\% [48 to {$<$}53 mmol/mol] microvascular: hazard ratio 1.204 [95\% CI 1.063-1.365]), and HbA1c levels {$\geq$}7.0\% ({$\geq$}53 mmol/mol) were associated with increased mortality (e.g., HbA1c 7.0\% to {$<$}8.0\% [53 to {$<$}64 mmol/mol]: 1.290 [1.104-1.507]). Longer periods of exposure to HbA1c levels {$\geq$}8.0\% ({$\geq$}64 mmol/mol) were associated with increasing microvascular event and mortality risk. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients with newly diagnosed diabetes and 10 years of survival, HbA1c levels {$\geq$}6.5\% ({$\geq$}48 mmol/mol) for the 1st year after diagnosis were associated with worse outcomes. Immediate, intensive treatment for newly diagnosed patients may be necessary to avoid irremediable long-term risk for diabetic complications and mortality.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC6385699},
  pmid = {30104301},
  keywords = {Aged,Aging,Blood Glucose,Cohort Studies,Comorbidity,Diabetes Complications,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Disease Progression,Early Medical Intervention,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glycated Hemoglobin,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Risk Factors,Survival Analysis,Time Factors,United States},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/3L9E87WK/Laiteerapong e.a. - 2019 - The Legacy Effect in Type 2 Diabetes Impact of Ea.pdf}
}

@article{Larsson2000,
  title = {Prediction of Diabetes Using {{ADA}} or {{WHO}} Criteria in Post-Menopausal Women: A 10-Year Follow-up Study},
  shorttitle = {Prediction of Diabetes Using {{ADA}} or {{WHO}} Criteria in Post-Menopausal Women},
  author = {Larsson, H. and Lindg{\"a}rde, F. and Berglund, G. and Ahr{\'e}n, B.},
  year = {2000},
  month = oct,
  journal = {Diabetologia},
  volume = {43},
  number = {10},
  pages = {1224--1228},
  issn = {0012-186X},
  doi = {10.1007/s001250051516},
  abstract = {AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: To study the risk of women with impaired fasting glucose (IFG) as against impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) developing diabetes. METHODS: Oral glucose tolerance tests (75 g) were done in 265 women selected at random at baseline (age 55-57 years) and at a 10-year follow-up. Of the women 42 had IFG/NGT (fasting glucose 6.1-6.9 mmol/l, 2-h glucose {$<$} 7.8 mmol/l), 66 IGT/ NFG (2-h glucose 7.8-11.0 mmol/l, fasting glucose {$<$} 6.1 mmol/1), 30 IGT/IFG and 127 NFG/NGT. RESULTS: The 10-year progression to diabetes was similar in IGT/NFG (12.1\%) and IFG/NGT groups (11.9\%, p = 0.97). In IGT/IFG, 20.0\% had developed diabetes, which was not significantly higher than in IFG/NGT and IGT/NFG (p = 0.53). In NFG/ NGT at baseline, only 3.9 \% had developed diabetes, which was lower than in the other groups (p = 0.023). CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: Fasting and 2-h glucose concentrations are equally good in predicting diabetes development over a 10-year period in Caucasian postmenopausal women. Because IGT is more common than IFG, measuring only fasting glucose concentrations would, however, result in missing a prediabetic stage in a large group of people at risk for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {11079739},
  keywords = {Blood Glucose,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fasting,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,Middle Aged,Postmenopause,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/4I7TMPGT/Larsson e.a. - 2000 - Prediction of diabetes using ADA or WHO criteria i.pdf}
}

@article{Lauenborg2004,
  title = {Increasing Incidence of Diabetes after Gestational Diabetes: A Long-Term Follow-up in a {{Danish}} Population},
  shorttitle = {Increasing Incidence of Diabetes after Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Lauenborg, Jeannet and Hansen, Torben and Jensen, Dorte M{\o}ller and Vestergaard, Henrik and {M{\o}lsted-Pedersen}, Lars and Hornnes, Peter and Locht, Henning and Pedersen, Oluf and Damm, Peter},
  year = {2004},
  month = may,
  journal = {Diabetes Care},
  volume = {27},
  number = {5},
  pages = {1194--1199},
  issn = {0149-5992},
  doi = {10.2337/diacare.27.5.1194},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: To study the incidence of diabetes among women with previous diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in the light of the general increasing incidence of overweight and diabetes and to identify risk factors for the development of diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Women with diet-treated GDM during 1978-1985 (old cohort, n = 241, also followed up around 1990) or 1987-1996 (new cohort, n = 512) were examined in 2000-2002. Women were classified by a 2-h, 75-g oral glucose tolerance test according to the World Health Organization criteria or an intravenous glucagon test supplemented by measurement of GAD antibodies. Historical data from index-pregnancy and anthropometrical measurements were collected. RESULTS: A total of 481 (63.9\%) women were examined (median 9.8 years [interquartile range 6.4-17.2]) after index pregnancy. Diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)/impaired fasting glucose were present in 40.0 and 27.0\% of women, respectively. In the new cohort, 40.9\% had diabetes compared with 18.3\% in the old cohort at the 1990 follow-up (P {$<$} 0.0005). Prepregnancy BMI was significantly higher in the new compared with the old cohort (26.0 [22.5-30.8] vs. 22.9 kg/m2 [20.2-28.0], P {$<$} 0.0005). Among others, new-cohort membership, prepregnancy overweight (BMI {$>$} or = 25 kg/m2), and IGT postpartum were identified as independent predictors of diabetes by multiple logistic regression analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of diabetes among Danish women with previous diet-treated GDM was very high and had more than doubled over a 10-year period. This seems to be due to a substantial increase in BMI in women with GDM.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {15111544},
  keywords = {Adult,Body Mass Index,Cohort Studies,Denmark,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus,Diabetes Mellitus Type 1,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Gestational Age,Glucagon,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,Incidence,Infant Newborn,Middle Aged,Pregnancy,Time Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/2Z2TYKQ9/Lauenborg e.a. - 2004 - Increasing incidence of diabetes after gestational.pdf}
}

@article{Lauritzen2018,
  title = {The {{Danish}} Translation and Validation of the {{Berlin Questionnaire}} for Sleep Apnoea},
  author = {Lauritzen, Elisabeth and {K{\o}rvel-Hanquist}, Asbj{\o}rn and Hom{\o}e, Preben},
  year = {2018},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Danish Medical Journal},
  volume = {65},
  number = {9},
  pages = {A5502},
  issn = {2245-1919},
  abstract = {INTRODUCTION: Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is an increasing health problem related to cardiovascular disease, poor quality of life, daytime sleepiness and un-restorative sleep with an estimated prevalence up to 20\% in the adult population. Approximately 82\% of men and 93\% of women with moderate to severe OSA remain undiagnosed. Relevant, fast, accurate and cost-effective screening methods are essential. The aim of this study was to translate and validate the Danish version of the Berlin Questionnaire (BQ), and to investigate if the questionnaire can be used for screening of OSA in a Danish population. METHODS: The BQ was translated into Danish according to guidelines producing the Danish Berlin Questionnaire (DBQ). The study population included 206 adult patients referred to the Sleep Clinic of Zealand University Hospital, Denmark, on suspicion of OSA. RESULTS: 69.4\% were males, 53.3\% were obese (BMI {$>$} 30), the mean BMI was 32.01. A total of 135 patients had hypertension (65.5\%). Apnoea/hypopnoea Index (AHI) {$\geq$} 15 was present in 141 of 206 patients (68.4\%). We observed a sensitivity of the DBQ of 84\% and a positive predictive value of 69\%. CONCLUSIONS: We have successfully translated and partially validated the DBQ for OSA. Our study showed that the DBQ is useful for screening of Danish patients suspected of OSA. Further studies with improved screening methods and further development of questionnaires are recommended. FUNDING: none. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was approved by the Danish Data Protection Agency.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {30187861},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Denmark,Female,Hospitals University,Humans,Hypertension,Language,Male,Middle Aged,Obesity,Sensitivity and Specificity,Severity of Illness Index,Sleep Apnea Obstructive,Surveys and Questionnaires}
}

@misc{Lovibond2011,
  title = {Depression {{Anxiety Stress Scales}}},
  author = {Lovibond, S. H. and Lovibond, P. F.},
  year = {2011},
  month = sep,
  publisher = {American Psychological Association},
  doi = {10.1037/t01004-000},
  urldate = {2024-06-14},
  langid = {english}
}

@article{Lowndes2017,
  title = {Our Path to Better Science in Less Time Using Open Data Science Tools},
  author = {Lowndes, Julia S. Stewart and Best, Benjamin D. and Scarborough, Courtney and Afflerbach, Jamie C. and Frazier, Melanie R. and O'Hara, Casey C. and Jiang, Ning and Halpern, Benjamin S.},
  year = {2017},
  month = may,
  journal = {Nature Ecology \&amp; Evolution},
  volume = {1},
  number = {6},
  publisher = {{Springer Science and Business Media LLC}},
  issn = {2397-334X},
  doi = {10.1038/s41559-017-0160}
}

@article{LunaPinzon2022,
  title = {The {{ENCOMPASS}} Framework: A Practical Guide for the Evaluation of Public Health Programmes in Complex Adaptive Systems.},
  author = {Luna Pinzon, Angie and Stronks, Karien and Dijkstra, Coosje and Renders, Carry and Altenburg, Teatske and {den Hertog}, Karen and Kremers, Stef P. J. and Chinapaw, Mai J. M. and Verhoeff, Arnoud P. and Waterlander, Wilma},
  year = {2022},
  month = mar,
  journal = {The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity},
  volume = {19},
  number = {1},
  pages = {33},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1479-5868},
  doi = {10.1186/s12966-022-01267-3},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Systems thinking embraces the complexity of public health problems, including childhood overweight and obesity. It aids in understanding how factors  are interrelated, and it can be targeted to produce favourable changes in a  system. There is a growing call for systems approaches in public health research,  yet limited practical guidance is available on how to evaluate public health  programmes within complex adaptive systems. The aim of this paper is to present  an evaluation framework that supports researchers in designing systems  evaluations in a comprehensive and practical way. METHODS: We searched the  literature for existing public health systems evaluation studies. Key  characteristics on how to conduct a systems evaluation were extracted and  compared across studies. Next, we overlaid the identified characteristics to the  context of the Lifestyle Innovations Based on Youth Knowledge and Experience  (LIKE) programme evaluation and analyzed which characteristics were essential to  carry out the LIKE evaluation. This resulted in the Evaluation of Programmes in  Complex Adaptive Systems (ENCOMPASS) framework. RESULTS: The ENCOMPASS framework  includes five iterative stages: (1) adopting a system dynamics perspective on the  overall evaluation design; (2) defining the system boundaries; (3) understanding  the pre-existing system to inform system changes; (4) monitoring dynamic  programme output at different system levels; and (5) measuring programme outcome  and impact in terms of system changes. CONCLUSIONS: The value of ENCOMPASS lies  in the integration of key characteristics from existing systems evaluation  studies, as well as in its practical, applied focus. It can be employed in  evaluating public health programmes in complex adaptive systems. Furthermore,  ENCOMPASS provides guidance for the entire evaluation process, all the way from  understanding the system to developing actions to change it and to measuring  system changes. By the nature of systems thinking, the ENCOMPASS framework will  likely evolve further over time, as the field expands with more completed  studies.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2022. The Author(s).},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC8962023},
  pmid = {35346233},
  keywords = {*Obesity/prevention & control,*Public Health,Adolescent,Child,Complex systems,Evaluation,Humans,Overweight and obesity,Participatory action research,Practice,Program Evaluation,Public health,Systems thinking,Whole-of-systems approaches}
}

@article{Marchal,
  title = {Is Realist Evaluation Keeping Its Promise? {{A}} Review of Published Empirical Studies in the Field of Health Systems Research.},
  author = {Marchal, B and {van Belle}, S and {van Olmen}, J and Hoer{\'e}e, T and Kegels, G},
  journal = {Evaluation},
  volume = {2012},
  number = {18(2)},
  pages = {192--212}
}

@article{Nedergaard2023,
  title = {A Kind Reminder---{{A}} Qualitative Process Evaluation of Women's Perspectives on Receiving a Reminder of Type 2 Diabetes Follow-up Screening after Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Nedergaard, Julie B. and Nielsen, Jane H. and Andersen, L{\ae}rke M. B. and Dahl, Tina A. and Overgaard, Charlotte},
  year = {2023},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice},
  volume = {29},
  number = {4},
  pages = {591--601},
  issn = {1356-1294, 1365-2753},
  doi = {10.1111/jep.13805},
  urldate = {2024-06-12},
  abstract = {Abstract                            Rationale, Aims and Objectives               Women with previous gestational diabetes~mellitus~(GDM) are more than eight times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes (T2DM) compared to women without GDM. Annual follow-up T2DM-screening is recommended, but participation rates decrease rapidly after the first year. In the North Denmark Region, an electronic reminder has been tested with the aim of improving follow-up care for women with prior GDM. The aim of this study was to explore women's perspectives on receiving an electronic reminder, and the role of reminders in both women's decision-making and informed choice regarding participation in follow-up screening.                                         Methods               A qualitative process evaluation informed by a critical realistic perspective. Data consisted of 20 semi-structured interviews with women previously diagnosed with GDM who had received the reminder. Interviews were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis.                                         Results               The reminder affected women's decision-making and informed choices through a range of mechanisms. Its personalized design prompted feelings of co-responsibility and care from the healthcare system, supported continuity in women's care pathways, and helped women bridge the gap between healthcare sectors. Women's perception of diabetes risk and the importance of follow-up influenced their decision-making. Participation in follow-up screening was influenced by several contextual factors, as women's everyday life impeded their prioritizing follow-up screening. Women who experienced being met by their general practitioner (GP) with acknowledgement rather than stigmatization and received supportive information tailored to their life situation were more motivated to participate in future follow-up screenings.                                         Conclusion               The reminder indicated both concern and co-responsibility for women's follow-up care after GDM and was well received by the women. It supported participation in follow-up screening through an emphasis on shared decision-making and informed choice. Women's interaction with their GP played a significant role.},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/6Z3H6PDJ/Nedergaard e.a. - 2023 - A kind reminder—A qualitative process evaluation o.pdf}
}

@article{Nicolaisen2023,
  title = {{{HbA1c-defined}} Prediabetes and Progression to Type 2 Diabetes in {{Denmark}}: {{A}} Population-Based Study Based on Routine Clinical Care Laboratory Data.},
  author = {Nicolaisen, Sia Kromann and Pedersen, Lars and Witte, Daniel R. and S{\o}rensen, Henrik Toft and Thomsen, Reimar Wernich},
  year = {2023},
  month = sep,
  journal = {Diabetes research and clinical practice},
  volume = {203},
  pages = {110829},
  address = {Ireland},
  issn = {1872-8227 0168-8227},
  doi = {10.1016/j.diabres.2023.110829},
  abstract = {AIMS: To estimate the prevalence, incidence, mortality, and risk of progression to type 2 diabetes for individuals with HbA1c-defined prediabetes based on Danish  nationwide population-based laboratory databases. METHODS: We included all HbA1c  measurements from general practice and hospitals during 2012 to 2018. We  estimated the cumulative incidence of having at least one HbA1c measurement. The  prevalence and incidence rates of prediabetes (HbA1c 42-47~mmol/mol) were  examined in the adult Danish population. The 5-year cumulative incidence of  progression to type 2 diabetes was estimated with death as competing event.  RESULTS: Among 4,979,590 adult Danes, 70.8\% (95\% CI 70.8-70.9) had at least one  HbA1c measurement during 2012 to 2018. The prevalence of prediabetes was 7.1\%  (95\% CI 7.1-7.1) in 2018. The incidence rate was 14.2 (95\% CI 14.1-14.3) per  1,000 person-years, with median age 66.9~years (IQR 56.7-75.7) and median HbA1c  43~mmol/mol (IQR 42-44) at prediabetes diagnosis. Within five years, 17.5\% (95\%  CI 17.3-17.7) died and the 5-year cumulative incidence of type 2 diabetes was  21.3\% (95\% CI 21.1-21.5). CONCLUSIONS: Out of 100 Danish adults, 1.4 develop  prediabetes each year and they can be identified at an early stage in laboratory  databases. Within five years, one in five individuals with prediabetes progresses  to diabetes and one in six dies.},
  copyright = {Copyright {\copyright} 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {37451628},
  keywords = {Glycated hemoglobin,HbA1c,Laboratory data,Prediabetes incidence,Prediabetes prevalence,Type 2 diabetes}
}

@article{Nielsen2016,
  title = {The Construct Validity of the {{Perceived Stress Scale}}},
  author = {Nielsen, Marie Germund and {\O}rnb{\o}l, Eva and Vestergaard, Mogens and Bech, Per and Larsen, Finn Breinholt and Lasgaard, Mathias and Christensen, Kaj Sparle},
  year = {2016},
  month = may,
  journal = {Journal of Psychosomatic Research},
  volume = {84},
  pages = {22--30},
  issn = {1879-1360},
  doi = {10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.03.009},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: Stress impacts the quality of life and is associated with increased risk of mental and physical disorders. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) is widely used for measuring psychological distress. Although the instrument was originally defined as a single construct, several studies based on classical test theory suggest that a two-dimensional structure is more dominant. We aimed to explore the construct validity and dimensionality of the PSS-10 using modern test theory to determine if the scale is predominantly for a one- or a two-dimensional model. METHODS: The study population consisted of 32,374 citizens who completed the PSS-10 as part of the Danish National Health Survey in 2010. We investigated the construct validity of the PSS-10 by CFA. We examined the scalability by investigating the fit of the data distribution in a unidimensional Rasch model and performing modification of response categories, persons and items. The scale dimensionality was additionally assessed by Mokken and Rasch analysis. RESULTS: The PSS-10 did not fit the Rasch model. Item four indicated the largest misfit, and items four and seven displayed disordered thresholds. Unidimensionality could not be established although the data showed improved fit to the Rasch model for the two dimensions respectively with the positive and negative items. Mokken analysis revealed fit to the unidimensional model, but disordered thresholds were shown for item four. CONCLUSION: Our large population-based study indicated scalability problems in the current version of the PSS-10. The conducted analysis overall revealed better statistical fit for a two-dimensional than a unidimensional model.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {27095155},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Construct validity,Denmark,Dimensionality,Female,Health Surveys,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Models Statistical,Perceived Stress Scale,Psychometrics,Quality of Life,Rasch model,Reproducibility of Results,Research Design,Social Perception,Stress,Stress Psychological,Surveys and Questionnaires}
}

@article{Nielsen2020,
  title = {Protocol for a Randomised Controlled Trial of a Co-Produced, Complex, Health Promotion Intervention for Women with Prior Gestational Diabetes and Their Families: The {{Face-it}} Study},
  shorttitle = {Protocol for a Randomised Controlled Trial of a Co-Produced, Complex, Health Promotion Intervention for Women with Prior Gestational Diabetes and Their Families},
  author = {Nielsen, Karoline Kragelund and {Dahl-Petersen}, Inger Katrine and Jensen, Dorte M{\o}ller and Ovesen, Per and Damm, Peter and Jensen, Nanna Husted and Th{\o}gersen, Maja and Timm, Anne and Hillersdal, Line and Kampmann, Ulla and Vinter, Christina Anne and Mathiesen, Elisabeth Reinhardt and Maindal, Helle Terkildsen and {Face-it Study Group}},
  year = {2020},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Trials},
  volume = {21},
  number = {1},
  pages = {146},
  issn = {1745-6215},
  doi = {10.1186/s13063-020-4062-4},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with an increased risk of future diabetes in both mother, father and offspring. More knowledge is needed about how to effectively reduce the risk of diabetes through sustained behavioural interventions in these families. The Face-it intervention is a complex health promotion intervention embedded in multi-level supportive environments. The aim of the intervention is to reduce type 2 diabetes risk and increase quality of life among families in the first year following a GDM-affected pregnancy by promoting physical activity, healthy dietary behaviours and breastfeeding through a focus on social support, motivation, self-efficacy, risk perception and health literacy. METHODS: This national multicentre study is a two-arm randomised controlled trial including 460 women with GDM in a ratio of 2 (intervention):1 (usual care). The Face-it intervention consists of three main components: 1) additional visits from municipal health visitors, 2) digital health coaching tailored to family needs and 3) a structured cross-sectoral communication system in the health care system. The intervention runs from 3 to 12\,months after delivery. The primary outcome is maternal body mass index at 12\,months after delivery as a proxy for diabetes risk. The women will be examined at baseline and at follow-up, and this examination will include blood tests, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), anthropometrics, blood pressure, self-reported diet and physical activity, breastfeeding, quality of life, health literacy, physical and mental health status, risk perception and social support. Aside from those data collected for OGTT and breastfeeding and offspring parameters, the same data will be collected for partners. Data on offspring anthropometry will also be collected. Information on pregnancy- and birth-related outcomes will be derived from the medical records of the woman and child. DISCUSSION: This randomised controlled trial seeks to demonstrate whether the Face-it intervention, addressing the individual, family and health care system levels, is superior to usual care in reducing diabetes risk for mothers and their families. Coupled with a process evaluation and an economic analysis, the study will provide evidence for policymakers and health services about health promotion among families affected by GDM and the potential for reducing risk of type 2 diabetes and associated conditions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03997773. Registered June 25, 2019 - Retrospectively registered.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC7006376},
  pmid = {32033613},
  keywords = {Adult,Breast Feeding,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Family Relations,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Gestational diabetes mellitus Type 2 diabetes prevention Postpartum period Family intervention Complex intervention Health promotion Cross-disciplinary research,Glucose Tolerance Test,Health Literacy,Health Promotion,Healthy Lifestyle,Humans,Infant Newborn,Male,Middle Aged,Motivation,Pregnancy,Quality of Life,Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic,Risk Reduction Behavior,Social Support,Treatment Outcome},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/NGW46UM2/Nielsen e.a. - 2020 - Protocol for a randomised controlled trial of a co.pdf}
}

@article{Nobles2022,
  title = {Ripple Effects Mapping: Capturing the Wider Impacts of Systems Change Efforts in Public Health.},
  author = {Nobles, James and Wheeler, Jessica and {Dunleavy-Harris}, Kirsty and Holmes, Richard and {Inman-Ward}, Alan and Potts, Alexandra and Hall, Jennifer and Redwood, Sabi and Jago, Russell and Foster, Charlie},
  year = {2022},
  month = mar,
  journal = {BMC medical research methodology},
  volume = {22},
  number = {1},
  pages = {72},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1471-2288},
  doi = {10.1186/s12874-022-01570-4},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Systems approaches are currently being advocated and implemented to address complex challenges in Public Health. These approaches work by bringing  multi-sectoral stakeholders together to develop a collective understanding of the  system, and then to identify places where they can leverage change across the  system. Systems approaches are unpredictable, where cause-and-effect cannot  always be disentangled, and unintended consequences - positive and negative -  frequently arise. Evaluating such approaches is difficult and new methods are  warranted. METHODS: Ripple Effects Mapping (REM) is a qualitative method which  can capture the wider impacts, and adaptive nature, of a systems approach. Using  a case study example from the evaluation of a physical activity-orientated  systems approach in Gloucestershire, we: a) introduce the adapted REM method; b)  describe how REM was applied in the example; c) explain how REM outputs were  analysed; d) provide examples of how REM outputs were used; and e) describe the  strengths, limitations, and future uses of REM based on our reflections. RESULTS:  Ripple Effects Mapping is a participatory method that requires the active input  of programme stakeholders in data gathering workshops. It produces visual outputs  (i.e., maps) of the programme activities and impacts, which are mapped along a  timeline to understand the temporal dimension of systems change efforts. The REM  outputs from our example were created over several iterations, with data  collected every 3-4\,months, to build a picture of activities and impacts that  have continued or ceased. Workshops took place both in person and online. An  inductive content analysis was undertaken to describe and quantify the patterns  within the REM outputs. Detailed guidance related to the preparation, delivery,  and analysis of REM are included in this paper. CONCLUSION: REM may help to  advance our understanding and evaluation of complex systems approaches,  especially within the field of Public Health. We therefore invite other  researchers, practitioners and policymakers to use REM and continuously evolve  the method to enhance its application and practical utility.},
  copyright = {{\copyright} 2022. The Author(s).},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC8930282},
  pmid = {35300619},
  keywords = {*Exercise,*Public Health,Complex adaptive systems,Complexity,Evaluation,Humans,Public health,Research Personnel,Systems approach,Systems science}
}

@article{Pan1997,
  title = {Effects of Diet and Exercise in Preventing {{NIDDM}} in People with Impaired Glucose Tolerance. {{The Da Qing IGT}} and {{Diabetes Study}}.},
  author = {Pan, X R and Li, G W and Hu, Y H and Wang, J X and Yang, W Y and An, Z X and Hu, Z X and Lin, J and Xiao, J Z and Cao, H B and Liu, P A and Jiang, X G and Jiang, Y Y and Wang, J P and Zheng, H and Zhang, H and Bennett, P H and Howard, B V},
  year = {1997},
  month = apr,
  journal = {Diabetes care},
  volume = {20},
  number = {4},
  eprint = {9096977},
  eprinttype = {pubmed},
  pages = {537--44},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: Individuals with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) have a high risk of developing NIDDM. The purpose of this study was to determine whether diet and exercise interventions in those with IGT may delay the development of NIDDM, i.e., reduce the incidence of NIDDM, and thereby reduce the overall incidence of diabetic complications, such as cardiovascular, renal, and retinal disease, and the excess mortality attributable to these complications. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In 1986, 110,660 men and women from 33 health care clinics in the city of Da Qing, China, were screened for IGT and NIDDM. Of these individuals, 577 were classified (using World Health Organization criteria) as having IGT. Subjects were randomized by clinic into a clinical trial, either to a control group or to one of three active treatment groups: diet only, exercise only, or diet plus exercise. Follow-up evaluation examinations were conducted at 2-year intervals over a 6-year period to identify subjects who developed NIDDM. Cox's proportional hazard analysis was used to determine if the incidence of NIDDM varied by treatment assignment. RESULTS: The cumulative incidence of diabetes at 6 years was 67.7\% (95\% CI, 59.8-75.2) in the control group compared with 43.8\% (95\% CI, 35.5-52.3) in the diet group, 41.1\% (95\% CI, 33.4-49.4) in the exercise group, and 46.0\% (95\% CI, 37.3-54.7) in the diet-plus-exercise group (P {$<$} 0.05). When analyzed by clinic, each of the active intervention groups differed significantly from the control clinics (P {$<$} 0.05). The relative decrease in rate of development of diabetes in the active treatment groups was similar when subjects were stratified as lean or overweight (BMI {$<$} or {$>$} or = 25 kg/m2). In a proportional hazards analysis adjusted for differences in baseline BMI and fasting glucose, the diet, exercise, and diet-plus-exercise interventions were associated with 31\% (P {$<$} 0.03), 46\% (P {$<$} 0.0005), and 42\% (P {$<$} 0.005) reductions in risk of developing diabetes, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Diet and/or exercise interventions led to a significant decrease in the incidence of diabetes over a 6-year period among those with IGT.},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Body Mass Index,China,Combined Modality Therapy,Diabetes Mellitus,Diabetes Mellitus: epidemiology,Exercise,Female,Follow-Up Studies,Glucose Intolerance,Glucose Intolerance: diet therapy,Glucose Intolerance: epidemiology,Glucose Intolerance: therapy,Humans,Incidence,Male,Mass Screening,Middle Aged,Obesity,Obesity: epidemiology,Proportional Hazards Models,Risk Factors,Time Factors,Type 2,Type 2: epidemiology,Type 2: prevention & control}
}

@article{Peters2014,
  title = {The Application of Systems Thinking in Health: Why Use Systems Thinking?},
  shorttitle = {The Application of Systems Thinking in Health},
  author = {Peters, David H.},
  year = {2014},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Health Research Policy and Systems},
  volume = {12},
  pages = {51},
  issn = {1478-4505},
  doi = {10.1186/1478-4505-12-51},
  abstract = {This paper explores the question of what systems thinking adds to the field of global health. Observing that elements of systems thinking are already common in public health research, the article discusses which of the large body of theories, methods, and tools associated with systems thinking are more useful. The paper reviews the origins of systems thinking, describing a range of the theories, methods, and tools. A common thread is the idea that the behavior of systems is governed by common principles that can be discovered and expressed. They each address problems of complexity, which is a frequent challenge in global health. The different methods and tools are suited to different types of inquiry and involve both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The paper concludes by emphasizing that explicit models used in systems thinking provide new opportunities to understand and continuously test and revise our understanding of the nature of things, including how to intervene to improve people's health.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC4245196},
  pmid = {25160707},
  keywords = {Delivery of Health Care,Global Health,Health Services Research,Humans,Models Theoretical,Public Health,Systems Analysis,Systems Theory},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/49HXGZUN/Peters - 2014 - The application of systems thinking in health why.pdf}
}

@article{Ratner2008,
  title = {Prevention of Diabetes in Women with a History of Gestational Diabetes: Effects of Metformin and Lifestyle Interventions},
  shorttitle = {Prevention of Diabetes in Women with a History of Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Ratner, Robert E. and Christophi, Costas A. and Metzger, Boyd E. and Dabelea, Dana and Bennett, Peter H. and {Pi-Sunyer}, Xavier and Fowler, Sarah and Kahn, Steven E. and {Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group}},
  year = {2008},
  month = dec,
  journal = {The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism},
  volume = {93},
  number = {12},
  pages = {4774--4779},
  issn = {0021-972X},
  doi = {10.1210/jc.2008-0772},
  abstract = {CONTEXT: A past history of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) confers a very high risk of postpartum development of diabetes, particularly type 2 diabetes. OBJECTIVE: The Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) sought to identify individuals with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and intervene in an effort to prevent or delay their progression to diabetes. This analysis examined the differences between women enrolled in DPP with and without a reported history of GDM. DESIGN: The DPP was a randomized, controlled clinical trial. SETTING: The study was a multicenter, National Institutes of Health-sponsored trial carried out at 27 centers including academic and Indian Health Services sites. PATIENTS: A total of 2190 women were randomized into the DPP and provided information for past history of GDM. This analysis addressed the differences between those 350 women providing a past history of GDM and those 1416 women with a previous live birth but no history of GDM. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects were randomized to either standard lifestyle and placebo or metformin therapy or to an intensive lifestyle intervention. MAIN OUTCOMES: The primary outcome was the time to development of diabetes ascertained by semiannual fasting plasma glucose and annual oral glucose tolerance testing. Assessments of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity were also performed. RESULTS: Whereas entering the study with similar glucose levels, women with a history of GDM randomized to placebo had a crude incidence rate of diabetes 71\% higher than that of women without such a history. Among women reporting a history of GDM, both intensive lifestyle and metformin therapy reduced the incidence of diabetes by approximately 50\% compared with the placebo group, whereas this reduction was 49 and 14\%, respectively in parous women without GDM. These data suggest that metformin may be more effective in women with a GDM history as compared with those without. CONCLUSIONS: Progression to diabetes is more common in women with a history of GDM compared with those without GDM history despite equivalent degrees of IGT at baseline. Both intensive lifestyle and metformin are highly effective in delaying or preventing diabetes in women with IGT and a history of GDM.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC2626441},
  pmid = {18826999},
  keywords = {Adult,Cardiovascular Diseases,Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus,Double-Blind Method,Female,Glucose Intolerance,Humans,Hypoglycemic Agents,Life Style,Metformin,Motor Activity,Pregnancy,Proportional Hazards Models,Risk Factors}
}

@misc{sdca-github,
  title = {Github {{Repositories}} for {{Research}} and {{Knowledge Sharing}} at {{Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus}}},
  author = {{Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus}}
}

@misc{seedcase,
  title = {The {{Seedcase Project}}: {{A}} Framework for an Open and Scalable Infrastructure for Health Data},
  author = {Beicher, Kristiane and Br{\o}db{\ae}k, Signe and Johnston, Luke W.}
}

@article{Silverman-Retana2020,
  title = {Effect of Familial Diabetes Status and Age at Diagnosis on Type 2 Diabetes Risk: A Nation-Wide Register-Based Study from {{Denmark}}},
  shorttitle = {Effect of Familial Diabetes Status and Age at Diagnosis on Type 2 Diabetes Risk},
  author = {{Silverman-Retana}, Omar and Hulman, Adam and Nielsen, Jannie and Ekstr{\o}m, Claus T. and Carstensen, Bendix and Simmons, Rebecca K. and Bjerg, Lasse and Johnston, Luke W. and Witte, Daniel R.},
  year = {2020},
  month = may,
  journal = {Diabetologia},
  volume = {63},
  number = {5},
  pages = {934--943},
  issn = {1432-0428},
  doi = {10.1007/s00125-020-05113-8},
  abstract = {AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We assessed whether the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and the age of onset varied with the age at diabetes diagnosis of affected family members. METHODS: We performed a national register-based open cohort study of individuals living in Denmark between 1995 and 2012. The population under study consisted of all individuals aged 30~years or older without diagnosed diabetes at the start date of the cohort (1 January 1995) and who had information about their parents' identity. Individuals who turned 30~years of age during the observation period and had available parental identity information were also added to the cohort from that date (open cohort design). These criteria restricted the study population mostly to people born between 1960 and 1982. Multivariable Poisson regression models adjusted for current age and highest educational attainment were used to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) of type 2 diabetes. RESULTS: We followed 2,000,552 individuals for a median of 14~years (24,034,059 person-years) and observed 76,633 new cases of type 2 diabetes. Compared with individuals of the same age and sex who did not have a parent or full sibling with diabetes, the highest risk of developing type 2 diabetes was observed in individuals with family members diagnosed at an early age. The IRR was progressively lower with a higher age at diabetes diagnosis in family members: 3.9 vs 1.4 for those with a parental age at diagnosis of 50 or 80~years, respectively; and 3.3 vs 2.0 for those with a full sibling's age at diagnosis of 30 or 60~years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: People with a family member diagnosed with diabetes at an earlier age are more likely to develop diabetes and also to develop it at an earlier age than those with a family member diagnosed in later life. This finding highlights the importance of expanding our understanding of the interplay between genetic diabetes determinants and the social, behavioural and environmental diabetes determinants that track in families across generations. Accurate registration of age at diagnosis should form an integral part of recording a diabetes family history, as it provides easily obtainable and highly relevant detail that may improve identification of individuals at increased risk of younger onset of type 2 diabetes. In particular, these individuals may benefit from closer risk factor assessment and follow-up, as well as prevention strategies that may involve the family.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {32076733},
  keywords = {Adult,Age Factors,Aged,Clinical science,Cohort Studies,Denmark,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Epidemiology,Female,Humans,Incidence,Male,Middle Aged,Prediction and prevention of type 2 diabetes,Registries,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/HZUJJDSB/Silverman-Retana e.a. - 2020 - Effect of familial diabetes status and age at diag.pdf}
}

@article{Skivington2021,
  title = {A New Framework for Developing and Evaluating Complex Interventions: Update of {{Medical Research Council}} Guidance.},
  author = {Skivington, Kathryn and Matthews, Lynsay and Simpson, Sharon Anne and Craig, Peter and Baird, Janis and Blazeby, Jane M. and Boyd, Kathleen Anne and Craig, Neil and French, David P. and McIntosh, Emma and Petticrew, Mark and {Rycroft-Malone}, Jo and White, Martin and Moore, Laurence},
  year = {2021},
  month = sep,
  journal = {BMJ (Clinical research ed.)},
  volume = {374},
  pages = {n2061},
  address = {England},
  issn = {1756-1833 0959-8138},
  doi = {10.1136/bmj.n2061},
  abstract = {The UK Medical Research Council's widely used guidance for developing and evaluating complex interventions has been replaced by a new framework,  commissioned jointly by the Medical Research Council and the National Institute  for Health Research, which takes account of recent developments in theory and  methods and the need to maximise the efficiency, use, and impact of research.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC8482308},
  pmid = {34593508},
  keywords = {*Guidelines as Topic,Biomedical Research/*methods,Humans,Outcome Assessment Health Care/*methods,Research Design/*standards,United Kingdom}
}

@article{Song2018,
  title = {Long-Term Risk of Diabetes in Women at Varying Durations after Gestational Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with More than 2 Million Women},
  shorttitle = {Long-Term Risk of Diabetes in Women at Varying Durations after Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Song, C. and Lyu, Y. and Li, C. and Liu, P. and Li, J. and Ma, R. C. and Yang, X.},
  year = {2018},
  month = mar,
  journal = {Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity},
  volume = {19},
  number = {3},
  pages = {421--429},
  issn = {1467-789X},
  doi = {10.1111/obr.12645},
  abstract = {This study aims to investigate the impact of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on the long-term risks of diabetes in women with prior GDM, including the effect at different time periods after GDM. We searched PubMed and other databases to retrieve articles which were published prior to February 28, 2017. Cohort studies which evaluated the risk and time of onset of diabetes postpartum in women with and without GDM were included. Meta-analysis with random effects models was used to obtain pooled relative risks and 95\% confidence intervals for the risk of diabetes. Subgroup analyses were performed to check for different effect sizes as well as consistency across groups. Multivariable logistic regression was used to adjust for confounders. Thirty cohort studies with 2,626,905 pregnant women were included. Women with prior GDM had 7.76-fold (95\% confidence intervals: 5.10-11.81) unadjusted pooled risk of diabetes as compared with women without GDM, whilst the adjusted risk was 17.92-fold (16.96-18.94). The adjusted ORs of GDM for diabetes among women at {$<$}3, {$\geq$}3 - {$<$}6 and {$\geq$}6 - {$<$}10~years after GDM were 5.37 (3.51-9.34), 16.55 (16.08-17.04) and 8.20 (4.53-14.86), respectively. Women with prior GDM had substantially increased risk of diabetes, with the risk highest during the 3-6~years after GDM.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {29266655},
  keywords = {Adult,Cohort studies,Cohort Studies,Diabetes Gestational,diabetes mellitus,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Female,gestational diabetes mellitus,Humans,meta-analysis,Postpartum Period,Pregnancy,Risk Factors,Weight Gain}
}

@article{Stovring2013,
  title = {A Competing Risk Approach for the {{European Heart SCORE}} Model Based on Cause-Specific and All-Cause Mortality.},
  author = {St{\o}vring, Henrik and Harmsen, Charlotte G. and Wisl{\o}ff, Torbj{\o}rn and Jarb{\o}l, Dorte E. and Nex{\o}e, J{\o}rgen and Nielsen, Jesper B. and Kristiansen, Ivar S.},
  year = {2013},
  month = oct,
  journal = {European journal of preventive cardiology},
  volume = {20},
  number = {5},
  pages = {827--836},
  address = {England},
  issn = {2047-4881 2047-4873},
  doi = {10.1177/2047487312445425},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: The European Heart SCORE model constitutes the basis for national guidelines for primary prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD)  in several European countries. The model estimates individuals' 10-year CVD  mortality risks from age, sex, smoking status, systolic blood pressure, and total  cholesterol level. The SCORE model, however, is not mathematically consistent and  does not estimate all-cause mortality. Our aim is to modify the SCORE model to  allow consistent estimation of both CVD-specific and all-cause mortality.  METHODS: Using a competing risk approach, we first re-estimated the  cause-specific risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and secondly we  incorporated non-CVD mortality. Finally, non-CVD mortality was allowed to also  depend on smoking status, and not only age and sex. From the models, we estimated  CVD-specific and all-cause 10-year mortality risk, and the expected residual  lifetime together with corresponding expected effects of statin treatment.  RESULTS: The modified model provided CVD-specific 10-year mortality risks similar  to those of the European Heart SCORE model. Incorporation of non-CVD mortality  increased 10-year mortality risks, in particular for older individuals. When  non-CVD mortality was assumed unaffected by smoking status, the absolute risk  reduction due to statin treatment ranged from 0.0\% to 3.5\%, whereas the gain in  expected residual lifetime ranged from 3 to 11 months. Statin effectiveness  increased for non-smokers and declined for smokers, when smoking was allowed to  influence non-CVD mortality. CONCLUSION: The modified model provides  mathematically consistent estimates of mortality risk and expected residual  lifetime together with expected benefits from statin treatment.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {22498473},
  keywords = {*Decision Support Techniques,Absolute risk reduction,Adult,Age Factors,Aged,Biomarkers/blood,Blood Pressure,cardiovascular mortality,Cause of Death,Cholesterol/blood,competing risk model,Coronary Disease/blood/diagnosis/*mortality/physiopathology/therapy,Dyslipidemias/blood/drug therapy/mortality,Europe/epidemiology,Female,Humans,Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors/therapeutic use,Hypertension/mortality/physiopathology,Male,Middle Aged,Models Statistical,prolongation of life,Risk Assessment,Risk Factors,risk prediction,Sex Factors,Smoking/adverse effects/mortality,Time Factors}
}

@misc{Sundhedsdatastyrelsen,
  title = {{Det Medicinske F{\o}dselsregister (The Medical Birth Register)}},
  author = {Sundhedsdatastyrelsen},
  langid = {danish}
}

@article{Svensson2018,
  title = {What Is the Postpartum Experience of {{Danish}} Women Following Gestational Diabetes? {{A}} Qualitative Exploration},
  shorttitle = {What Is the Postpartum Experience of {{Danish}} Women Following Gestational Diabetes?},
  author = {Svensson, Line and Nielsen, Karoline Kragelund and Maindal, Helle Terkildsen},
  year = {2018},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences},
  volume = {32},
  number = {2},
  pages = {756--764},
  issn = {1471-6712},
  doi = {10.1111/scs.12506},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) receive acute but short-term care during pregnancy. There is less direct support during the postpartum period; women are offered general advice on how to follow a healthy lifestyle to avoid developing future type 2 diabetes. Observational studies suggest that a substantial proportion of women with prior GDM do not sustain recommended lifestyle changes postpartum. In a qualitative study, we examined how Danish women diagnosed with GDM experience the transition from a GDM-affected pregnancy to the postpartum period. METHODS: Semistructured interviews with six women diagnosed with GDM. Data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. RESULTS: A GDM diagnosis was accompanied by worries about the health of the woman's baby. This was also the driving force behind the women's motivation to engage in lifestyle changes during pregnancy. The outpatient treatment was perceived to be strict and associated with various challenges, including cravings and discomfort. After the delivery, taking care of the baby became the women's dominant focus. Social and emotional support from partners were needed to maintain motivation and prioritise a healthy lifestyle. The women's experience of the health system varied. However, in the postpartum period all the women experienced limited interaction and initiative from their healthcare providers in supporting them to engage in a healthy lifestyle. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified barriers and facilitators to sustaining a healthy lifestyle postpartum. Efforts at multiple levels - including the individual, family and health system - are needed to facilitate and support a healthy lifestyle among women with prior GDM.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {28856697},
  keywords = {Adult,Denmark,Diabetes Gestational,Female,gestational diabetes,Humans,Mothers,Postnatal Care,Postpartum Period,Pregnancy,qualitative research,Qualitative Research,Young Adult}
}

@article{Tabak2009,
  title = {Trajectories of Glycaemia, Insulin Sensitivity, and Insulin Secretion before Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes: An Analysis from the {{Whitehall II}} Study},
  shorttitle = {Trajectories of Glycaemia, Insulin Sensitivity, and Insulin Secretion before Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes},
  author = {Tab{\'a}k, Adam G. and Jokela, Markus and Akbaraly, Tasnime N. and Brunner, Eric J. and Kivim{\"a}ki, Mika and Witte, Daniel R.},
  year = {2009},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Lancet (London, England)},
  volume = {373},
  number = {9682},
  pages = {2215--2221},
  issn = {1474-547X},
  doi = {10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60619-X},
  abstract = {BACKGROUND: Little is known about the timing of changes in glucose metabolism before occurrence of type 2 diabetes. We aimed to characterise trajectories of fasting and postload glucose, insulin sensitivity, and insulin secretion in individuals who develop type 2 diabetes. METHODS: We analysed data from our prospective occupational cohort study (Whitehall II study) of 6538 (71\% male and 91\% white) British civil servants without diabetes mellitus at baseline. During a median follow-up period of 9.7 years, 505 diabetes cases were diagnosed (49.1\% on the basis of oral glucose tolerance test). We assessed retrospective trajectories of fasting and 2-h postload glucose, homoeostasis model assessment (HOMA) insulin sensitivity, and HOMA beta-cell function from up to 13 years before diabetes diagnosis (diabetic group) or at the end of follow-up (non-diabetics). FINDINGS: Multilevel models adjusted for age, sex, and ethnic origin confirmed that all metabolic measures followed linear trends in the group of non-diabetics (10,989 measurements), except for insulin secretion that did not change during follow-up. In the diabetic group (801 measurements), a linear increase in fasting glucose was followed by a steep quadratic increase (from 5.79 mmol/L to 7.40 mmol/L) starting 3 years before diagnosis of diabetes. 2-h postload glucose showed a rapid increase starting 3 years before diagnosis (from 7.60 mmol/L to 11.90 mmol/L), and HOMA insulin sensitivity decreased steeply during the 5 years before diagnosis (to 86.7\%). HOMA beta-cell function increased between years 4 and 3 before diagnosis (from 85.0\% to 92.6\%) and then decreased until diagnosis (to 62.4\%). INTERPRETATION: In this study, we show changes in glucose concentrations, insulin sensitivity, and insulin secretion as much as 3-6 years before diagnosis of diabetes. The description of biomarker trajectories leading to diabetes diagnosis could contribute to more-accurate risk prediction models that use repeated measures available for patients through regular check-ups. FUNDING: Medical Research Council (UK); Economic and Social Research Council (UK); British Heart Foundation (UK); Health and Safety Executive (UK); Department of Health (UK); National Institute of Health (USA); Agency for Health Care Policy Research (USA); the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation (USA); and Academy of Finland (Finland).},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC2726723},
  pmid = {19515410},
  keywords = {Adult,Biomarkers,Blood Glucose,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Fasting,Female,Glucose Tolerance Test,Homeostasis,Humans,Insulin,Insulin Resistance,Insulin-Secreting Cells,Linear Models,London,Male,Mass Screening,Middle Aged,Prediabetic State,Prospective Studies,Risk Assessment,Risk Factors,Time Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/LAANMF7D/Tabák e.a. - 2009 - Trajectories of glycaemia, insulin sensitivity, an.pdf}
}

@article{Tabak2012,
  title = {Prediabetes: A High-Risk State for Diabetes Development},
  shorttitle = {Prediabetes},
  author = {Tab{\'a}k, Adam G. and Herder, Christian and Rathmann, Wolfgang and Brunner, Eric J. and Kivim{\"a}ki, Mika},
  year = {2012},
  month = jun,
  journal = {Lancet (London, England)},
  volume = {379},
  number = {9833},
  pages = {2279--2290},
  issn = {1474-547X},
  doi = {10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60283-9},
  abstract = {Prediabetes (intermediate hyperglycaemia) is a high-risk state for diabetes that is defined by glycaemic variables that are higher than normal, but lower than diabetes thresholds. 5-10\% of people per year with prediabetes will progress to diabetes, with the same proportion converting back to normoglycaemia. Prevalence of prediabetes is increasing worldwide and experts have projected that more than 470 million people will have prediabetes by 2030. Prediabetes is associated with the simultaneous presence of insulin resistance and {$\beta$}-cell dysfunction-abnormalities that start before glucose changes are detectable. Observational evidence shows associations between prediabetes and early forms of nephropathy, chronic kidney disease, small fibre neuropathy, diabetic retinopathy, and increased risk of macrovascular disease. Multifactorial risk scores using non-invasive measures and blood-based metabolic traits, in addition to glycaemic values, could optimise estimation of diabetes risk. For prediabetic individuals, lifestyle modification is the cornerstone of diabetes prevention, with evidence of a 40-70\% relative-risk reduction. Accumulating data also show potential benefits from pharmacotherapy.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC3891203},
  pmid = {22683128},
  keywords = {Adult,Blood Glucose,Diabetes Complications,Disease Progression,Global Health,Glycated Hemoglobin,Humans,Hyperglycemia,Hypoglycemic Agents,Life Style,Microcirculation,Prediabetic State,Risk Reduction Behavior},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/ARH5U23Q/Tabák e.a. - 2012 - Prediabetes a high-risk state for diabetes develo.pdf}
}

@article{Tillin2015,
  title = {Ethnicity-Specific Obesity Cut-Points in the Development of {{Type}} 2 Diabetes - a Prospective Study Including Three Ethnic Groups in the {{United Kingdom}}},
  author = {Tillin, T. and Sattar, N. and Godsland, I. F. and Hughes, A. D. and Chaturvedi, N. and Forouhi, N. G.},
  year = {2015},
  month = feb,
  journal = {Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association},
  volume = {32},
  number = {2},
  pages = {226--234},
  issn = {1464-5491},
  doi = {10.1111/dme.12576},
  abstract = {AIMS: Conventional definitions of obesity, e.g. body mass index (BMI) {$\geq$} 30 kg/m{$^2$} or waist circumference cut-points of 102 cm (men) and 88 cm (women), may underestimate metabolic risk in non-Europeans. We prospectively identified equivalent ethnicity-specific obesity cut-points for the estimation of diabetes risk in British South Asians, African-Caribbeans and Europeans. METHODS: We studied a population-based cohort from London, UK (1356 Europeans, 842 South Asians, 335 African-Caribbeans) who were aged 40-69 years at baseline (1988-1991), when they underwent anthropometry, fasting and post-load (75 g oral glucose tolerance test) blood tests. Incident Type 2 diabetes was identified from primary care records, participant recall and/or follow-up biochemistry. Ethnicity-specific obesity cut-points in association with diabetes incidence were estimated using negative binomial regression. RESULTS: Diabetes incidence rates (per 1000 person years) at a median follow-up of 19 years were 20.8 (95\% CI: 18.4, 23.6) and 12.0 (8.3, 17.2) in South Asian men and women, 16.5 (12.7, 21.4) and 17.5 (13.0, 23.7) in African-Caribbean men and women, and 7.4 (6.3, 8.7), and 7.2 (5.3, 9.8) in European men and women. For incidence rates equivalent to those at a BMI of 30 kg/m{$^2$} in European men and women, age- and sex-adjusted cut-points were: South Asians, 25.2 (23.4, 26.6) kg/m{$^2$}; and African-Caribbeans, 27.2 (25.2, 28.6) kg/m{$^2$}. For South Asian and African-Caribbean men, respectively, waist circumference cut-points of 90.4 (85.0, 94.5) and 90.6 (85.0, 94.5) cm were equivalent to a value of 102 cm in European men. Waist circumference cut-points of 84.0 (74.0, 90.0) cm in South Asian women and 81.2 (71.4, 87.4) cm in African-Caribbean women were equivalent to a value of 88 cm in European women. CONCLUSIONS: In prospective analyses, British South Asians and African-Caribbeans had equivalent diabetes incidence rates at substantially lower obesity levels than the conventional European cut-points.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC4441277},
  pmid = {25186015},
  keywords = {Adult,Aged,Asian People,Black People,Body Mass Index,Caribbean Region,Cohort Studies,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Diagnosis Differential,Female,Humans,Incidence,Insulin Resistance,London,Longitudinal Studies,Male,Middle Aged,Obesity,Overweight,Prospective Studies,Risk Factors,Urban Health,White People},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/BQW33KD4/Tillin e.a. - 2015 - Ethnicity-specific obesity cut-points in the devel.pdf}
}

@article{Tuomilehto2001,
  title = {Prevention of {{Type}} 2 {{Diabetes Mellitus}} by {{Changes}} in {{Lifestyle}} among {{Subjects}} with {{Impaired Glucose Tolerance}}},
  author = {Tuomilehto, Jaakko and Lindstr{\"o}m, Jaana and Eriksson, Johan G. and Valle, Timo T. and H{\"a}m{\"a}l{\"a}inen, Helena and {Ilanne-Parikka}, Pirjo and {Kein{\"a}nen-Kiukaanniemi}, Sirkka and Laakso, Mauri and Louheranta, Anne and Rastas, Merja and Salminen, Virpi and Aunola, Sirkka and Cepaitis, Zygimantas and Moltchanov, Vladislav and Hakum{\"a}ki, Martti and Mannelin, Marjo and Martikkala, Vesa and Sundvall, Jouko and Uusitupa, Matti},
  year = {2001},
  month = may,
  journal = {New England Journal of Medicine},
  volume = {344},
  number = {18},
  pages = {1343--1350},
  issn = {0028-4793, 1533-4406},
  doi = {10.1056/NEJM200105033441801},
  urldate = {2021-02-14},
  abstract = {Background Type 2 diabetes mellitus is increasingly common, primarily because of increases in the prevalence of a sedentary lifestyle and obesity. Whether type 2 diabetes can be prevented by interventions that affect the lifestyles of subjects at high risk for the disease is not known. Methods We randomly assigned 522 middle-aged, overweight subjects (172 men and 350 women; mean age, 55 years; mean body-mass index [weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters], 31) with impaired glucose tolerance to either the intervention group or the control group. Each subject in the intervention group received individualized counseling aimed at reducing weight, total intake of fat, and intake of saturated fat and increasing intake of fiber and physical activity. An oral glucose-tolerance test was performed annually; the diagnosis of diabetes was confirmed by a second test. The mean duration of follow-up was 3.2 years. Results The mean ({\textpm}SD) amount of weight lost between base line and the end of year 1 was 4.2{\textpm}5.1 kg in the intervention group and 0.8{\textpm}3.7 kg in the control group; the net loss by the end of year 2 was 3.5{\textpm}5.5 kg in the intervention group and 0.8{\textpm}4.4 kg in the control group (P{$<$}0.001 for both comparisons between the groups). The cumulative incidence of diabetes after four years was 11 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 6 to 15 percent) in the intervention group and 23 percent (95 percent confidence interval, 17 to 29 percent) in the control group. During the trial, the risk of diabetes was reduced by 58 percent (P{$<$}0.001) in the intervention group. The reduction in the incidence of diabetes was directly associated with changes in lifestyle. Conclusions Type 2 diabetes can be prevented by changes in the lifestyles of high-risk subjects. (N Engl J Med 2001;344:1343-50.)},
  langid = {english},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/Y3NQA339/Tuomilehto e.a. - 2001 - Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus by Changes .pdf}
}

@misc{ukbaid,
  title = {Documentation and {{R}} Package on Working with {{UK Biobank}} Data at {{SDCA}}},
  author = {{Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus}}
}

@article{Vistisen2019,
  title = {Reversion from Prediabetes to Normoglycaemia and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality: The {{Whitehall II}} Cohort Study},
  shorttitle = {Reversion from Prediabetes to Normoglycaemia and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality},
  author = {Vistisen, Dorte and Kivim{\"a}ki, Mika and Perreault, Leigh and Hulman, Adam and Witte, Daniel R. and Brunner, Eric J. and Tab{\'a}k, Adam and J{\o}rgensen, Marit E. and F{\ae}rch, Kristine},
  year = {2019},
  month = aug,
  journal = {Diabetologia},
  volume = {62},
  number = {8},
  pages = {1385--1390},
  issn = {1432-0428},
  doi = {10.1007/s00125-019-4895-0},
  abstract = {AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Reversion from prediabetes to normoglycaemia is accompanied by an improvement in cardiovascular risk factors, but it is unclear whether this translates into a reduction in risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) events or death. Hence, we studied the probability of reversion from prediabetes to normoglycaemia and the associated risk of future CVD and death using data from the Whitehall II observational cohort study. METHODS: Three glycaemic criteria for prediabetes (fasting plasma glucose [FPG] 5.6-6.9~mmol/l, 2~h plasma glucose [2hPG] 7.8-11.0~mmol/l, and HbA1c 39-47~mmol/mol [5.7-6.4\%]) were assessed in 2002-2004 and 2007-2009 for 5193 participants free of known diabetes at enrolment. Among participants with prediabetes in the first examination, we calculated the probability of reversion to normoglycaemia by re-examination according to each glycaemic criterion. Poisson regression analysis was used to estimate and compare incidence rates of a composite endpoint of a CVD event or death in participants with prediabetes who did vs did not revert to normoglycaemia. Analyses were adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity and previous CVD. RESULTS: Based on the FPG criterion, 820 participants had prediabetes and 365 (45\%) of them had reverted to normoglycaemia in 5~years. The corresponding numbers were 324 and 120 (37\%) for the 2hPG criterion and 1709 and 297 (17\%) for the HbA1c criterion. During a median follow-up of 6.7 (interquartile range 6.3-7.2) years, 668 events of non-fatal CVD or death occurred among the 5193 participants. Reverting from 2hPG-defined prediabetes to normoglycaemia vs remaining prediabetic or progressing to diabetes was associated with a halving in event rate (12.7 vs 29.1 per 1000 person-years, p\,=\,0.020). No association with event rate was observed for reverting from FPG-defined (18.6 vs 18.2 per 1000 person-years, p\,=\,0.910) or HbA1c-defined prediabetes to normoglycaemia (24.5 vs 22.9 per 1000 person-years, p\,=\,0.962). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Most people with HbA1c-defined prediabetes remained prediabetic or progressed to diabetes during 5~years of follow-up. In contrast, reversion to normoglycaemia was frequent among people with FPG- or 2hPG-defined prediabetes. Only reversion from 2hPG-defined prediabetes to normoglycaemia was associated with a reduction in future risk of CVD and death.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC6647230},
  pmid = {31123789},
  keywords = {2h Plasma glucose,Aged,Blood Glucose,Cardiovascular disease,Cardiovascular Diseases,Disease Progression,Fasting plasma glucose,Female,Glucose Tolerance Test,Glycated Hemoglobin,HbA1c,Humans,Male,Middle Aged,Mortality,Normoglycaemia,Poisson Distribution,Prediabetes,Prediabetic State,Probability,Regression Analysis,Remission Induction,Reversion,Risk Factors,Time Factors,Treatment Outcome},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/I5N5RBUY/Vistisen e.a. - 2019 - Reversion from prediabetes to normoglycaemia and r.pdf}
}

@article{Vounzoulaki2020,
  title = {Progression to Type 2 Diabetes in Women with a Known History of Gestational Diabetes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis},
  shorttitle = {Progression to Type 2 Diabetes in Women with a Known History of Gestational Diabetes},
  author = {Vounzoulaki, Elpida and Khunti, Kamlesh and Abner, Sophia C. and Tan, Bee K. and Davies, Melanie J. and Gillies, Clare L.},
  year = {2020},
  month = may,
  journal = {BMJ (Clinical research ed.)},
  volume = {369},
  pages = {m1361},
  issn = {1756-1833},
  doi = {10.1136/bmj.m1361},
  abstract = {OBJECTIVE: To estimate and compare progression rates to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and healthy controls. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES: Medline and Embase between January 2000 and December 2019, studies published in English and conducted on humans. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTING STUDIES: Observational studies investigating progression to T2DM. Inclusion criteria were postpartum follow-up for at least 12 months, incident physician based diagnosis of diabetes, T2DM reported as a separate outcome rather than combined with impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance, and studies with both a group of patients with GDM and a control group. RESULTS: This meta-analysis of 20 studies assessed a total of 1\,332\,373 individuals (67\,956 women with GDM and 1\,264\,417 controls). Data were pooled by random effects meta-analysis models, and heterogeneity was assessed by use of the I2 statistic. The pooled relative risk for the incidence of T2DM between participants with GDM and controls was estimated. Reasons for heterogeneity between studies were investigated by prespecified subgroup and meta-regression analyses. Publication bias was assessed by funnel plots and, overall, studies were deemed to have a low risk of bias (P=0.58 and P=0.90). The overall relative risk for T2DM was almost 10 times higher in women with previous GDM than in healthy controls (9.51, 95\% confidence interval 7.14 to 12.67, P{$<$}0.001). In populations of women with previous GDM, the cumulative incidence of T2DM was 16.46\% (95\% confidence interval 16.16\% to 16.77\%) in women of mixed ethnicity, 15.58\% (13.30\% to 17.86\%) in a predominantly non-white population, and 9.91\% (9.39\% to 10.42\%) in a white population. These differences were not statistically significant between subgroups (white v mixed populations, P=0.26; white v non-white populations, P=0.54). Meta-regression analyses showed that the study effect size was not significantly associated with mean study age, body mass index, publication year, and length of follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Women with a history of GDM appear to have a nearly 10-fold higher risk of developing T2DM than those with a normoglycaemic pregnancy. The magnitude of this risk highlights the importance of intervening to prevent the onset of T2DM, particularly in the early years after pregnancy. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42019123079.},
  langid = {english},
  pmcid = {PMC7218708},
  pmid = {32404325},
  keywords = {Diabetes Gestational,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2,Disease Progression,Female,Humans,Incidence,Postpartum Period,Pregnancy,Risk Factors},
  file = {/Users/daniel/Zotero/storage/WPCUI3D5/Vounzoulaki e.a. - 2020 - Progression to type 2 diabetes in women with a kno.pdf}
}

@article{Wagner2021,
  title = {Pathophysiology-Based Subphenotyping of Individuals at Elevated Risk for Type 2 Diabetes.},
  author = {Wagner, Robert and Heni, Martin and Tab{\'a}k, Adam G. and Machann, J{\"u}rgen and Schick, Fritz and Randrianarisoa, Elko and {Hrab{\v e} de Angelis}, Martin and Birkenfeld, Andreas L. and Stefan, Norbert and Peter, Andreas and H{\"a}ring, Hans-Ulrich and Fritsche, Andreas},
  year = {2021},
  month = jan,
  journal = {Nature medicine},
  volume = {27},
  number = {1},
  pages = {49--57},
  address = {United States},
  issn = {1546-170X 1078-8956},
  doi = {10.1038/s41591-020-1116-9},
  abstract = {The state of intermediate hyperglycemia is indicative of elevated risk of developing type 2 diabetes(1). However, the current definition of prediabetes  neither reflects subphenotypes of pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes nor is  predictive of future metabolic trajectories. We used partitioning on variables  derived from oral glucose tolerance tests, MRI-measured body fat distribution,  liver fat content and genetic risk in a cohort of extensively phenotyped  individuals who are at increased risk for type 2 diabetes(2,3) to identify six  distinct clusters of subphenotypes. Three of the identified subphenotypes have  increased glycemia (clusters 3, 5 and 6), but only individuals in clusters 5 and  3 have imminent diabetes risks. By contrast, those in cluster 6 have moderate  risk of type 2 diabetes, but an increased risk of kidney disease and all-cause  mortality. Findings were replicated in an independent cohort using simple  anthropomorphic and glycemic constructs(4). This proof-of-concept study  demonstrates that pathophysiological heterogeneity exists before diagnosis of  type 2 diabetes and highlights a group of individuals who have an increased risk  of complications without rapid progression to overt type 2 diabetes.},
  langid = {english},
  pmid = {33398163},
  keywords = {*Phenotype,Anthropometry,Blood Glucose/metabolism,Body Composition,Cohort Studies,Diabetes Mellitus Type 2/*physiopathology,Disease Progression,Disease Susceptibility,Female,Glucose Tolerance Test,Humans,Insulin/blood,Male,Middle Aged}
}

@article{Weller2020,
  title = {Latent {{Class Analysis}}: {{A Guide}} to {{Best Practice}}},
  shorttitle = {Latent {{Class Analysis}}},
  author = {Weller, Bridget E. and Bowen, Natasha K. and Faubert, Sarah J.},
  year = {2020},
  month = may,
  journal = {Journal of Black Psychology},
  volume = {46},
  number = {4},
  pages = {287--311},
  issn = {0095-7984, 1552-4558},
  doi = {10.1177/0095798420930932},
  urldate = {2024-06-17},
  abstract = {Latent class analysis (LCA) is a statistical procedure used to identify qualitatively different subgroups within populations who often share certain outward characteristics. The assumption underlying LCA is that membership in unobserved groups (or classes) can be explained by patterns of scores across survey questions, assessment indicators, or scales. The application of LCA is an active area of research and continues to evolve. As more researchers begin to apply the approach, detailed information on key considerations in conducting LCA is needed. In the present article, we describe LCA, review key elements to consider when conducting LCA, and provide an example of its application.},
  langid = {english}
}